[2]The timelessness of this theme of selfless love is suggested by how pervasiveit is in world myth: The Jataka tales, told throughout much of Asia for millennia, all narrate variations on such parables of self-sacrifice
[3]Altruistic love and human survival: The evolutionary theories that positthe adaptive advantages of altruism are well-summarized in Malcolm Slavin and Daniel Kriegman, The Adaptive Design of the Human Psyche (New York: Guilford Press, 1992).
[4]Much of this discussion is based on Paul Ekman's key essay, "An Argumentfor Basic Emotions," Cognition and Emotion, 6, 1992, pp. 169-200. This point is from P. N. Johnson-Laird and K. Oatley's essay in the same issue of the journal.
[5]The shooting of Matilda Crabtree: The New York Times, Nov. 11, 1994.
[6]Only in adults: An observation by Paul Ekman, University of California at San Francisco.
[7]Body changes in emotions and their evolutionary reasons: Some of thechanges are documented in Robert W. Levenson, Paul Ekman, and Wallace V. Friesen, "Voluntary Facial Action Generates Emotion-Specific AutonomousNervous System Activity," Psychophysiology, 27, 1990. This list is culled from there and other sources. At this point such a list remains speculative to a degree;there is scientific debate over the precise biological signature of each emotion, with some researchers taking the position that there is far more overlap thandifference among emotions, or that our present ability to measure the biological correlates of emotion is too immature to distinguish among them reliably. Forthis debate see: Paul Ekman and Richard Davidson, eds., Fundamental Questions About Emotions(New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).
[8]As Paul Ekman puts it, "Anger is the most dangerous emotion; some of themain problems destroying society these days involve anger run amok. It's the least adaptive emotion now because it mobilizes us to fight. Ou emotions evolvedwhen we didn't have the technology to act so powerfully on them. In prehistoric times, when you had an instantaneous rage and for a second wanted to killsomeone, you couldn't do it very easily—but now you can."
[9]Erasmus of Rotterdam, In Praise of Folly, trans. Eddie Radice (London: Penguin, 1971), p. 87.
[10]Such basic responses defined what might pass for the "emotional life" more aptly, an "instinct life"—of these species. More important in evolutionary terms, these are the decisions crucial to survival; those animals that could do themwell, or well enough, survived to pass on their genes. In these early times, mental life was brutish: the senses and a simple repertoire of reactions to the stimuli theyreceived got a lizard, frog, bird, or fish—and, perhaps, a brontosaurus—through the day. But this runt brain did not yet allow for what we think of as an emotion.
[11]The limbic system and emotions: R. Joseph, "The Naked Neuron: Evolutionand the Languages of the Brain and Body," New York: Plenum Publishing, 1993;Paul D. MacLean, The Triune Brain in Evolution (New York: Plenum, 1990).
[12]Rhesus infants and adaptability: "Aspects of emotion conserved acrossspecies," Ned Kalin, M.D., Departments of Psychology and Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin, prepared for the MacArthur Affective Neuroscience Meeting, Nov., 1992.