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四 結(jié)語

土耳其與西方關系已經(jīng)內(nèi)化于土耳其的身份認同,土耳其追求多元外交與土耳其西化外交之間的摩擦將呈上升趨勢。現(xiàn)代庫爾德問題源起于英法一戰(zhàn)后對中東秩序的劃分,而伊拉克庫爾德自治政府的壯大則又得益于美國的支持,正是西方極大地促成了現(xiàn)代庫爾德問題的形成。當下,庫爾德問題是西方對土耳其外交的極好杠桿,土耳其在庫爾德問題上將面臨著越來越多的人權指控,雙方關于人權和恐怖主義的爭論將會持續(xù)。未來,美國如果不能有效地防止庫爾德工人黨利用伊拉克北部對土耳其發(fā)動攻擊,土耳其會將此解讀為美國忽視土耳其核心的國家利益,從深層次上損害雙方關系。敘利亞庫爾德人的民主自治和伊拉克庫爾德人建國可能性的陡增,進一步凸顯了庫爾德問題和土耳其親西方外交之間的巨大矛盾,體現(xiàn)了雙方中東戰(zhàn)略和利益的根本性分歧。

理論上講,土耳其可以通過成功地管控國內(nèi)和國外的庫爾德問題從而增強自身的軟權力并借力于與西方的制度性聯(lián)系而崛起,西方可以將一個按照自己標準發(fā)生轉(zhuǎn)變的土耳其,視為真正的盟友。但實際上,土耳其與西方之間卷入越來越多的利益沖突,庫爾德問題則是雙邊矛盾的集中表現(xiàn),成為雙邊關系不睦的重要原因。土耳其更多地從領土和主權完整等方面來考慮問題,西方則從人權和自身在中東乃至于全球的利益等方面加以權衡,雙方立場靠攏的可能性呈直線下降趨勢,進而損害到土耳其成功管控庫爾德問題的可能性。因此,土耳其抱怨西方?jīng)]有顧及自身的國家安全,無法接受土耳其的歐洲特性,導致其反西方情緒增加。西方則批評土耳其外交的東轉(zhuǎn)并不斷向其施壓,不愿意輕易失去昔日的這一重要盟友。庫爾德問題和與西方關系是土耳其外交中的結(jié)構性問題,土耳其已經(jīng)為這兩個結(jié)構性問題所困,受限于自身的實力和歷史,土耳其難以掙脫這一羈縻,從而延滯其實現(xiàn)具有全球影響力區(qū)域領袖抱負的時間。土耳其在可預見的未來很難逃離這一籠子,但土耳其可以通過增強自身實力和靈活的外交為籠子擴容,尋求與自己實力相稱的地位,與此同時坐等區(qū)域和國際層面上地緣政治的大轉(zhuǎn)變。近期土耳其與美國關系的緊張,以及針對庫爾德武裝力量的軍事行動,增加了區(qū)域局勢的不穩(wěn)定和未來的不可預期性。不過,西方最終還是要接受奉行獨立外交的土耳其。

Two Structural Problems of Turkey's Foreign Policy:Kurdish Issue and Westernization of FP

Li Bingzhong

Abstract:Turkey's foreign policy has had two significant structural dynamics since the foundation of Republic:one is the Kurdish issue and the other is the relationship with the West.Theoretically,Turkey can build its soft power through effectively management of the Kurdish issue domestically and regionally,and through building on its strong links with the West.But practically,there are more and more interest conflicts between Turkey and the West,and it has also proved complicated for Turkey to manage the Kurdish issue successfully.It is unrealistic for Turkey to break away from the cage,but it can enlarge the cage through building its power and smart foreign policy to find a place fit well with its strength,while waiting for the great transformation on the regional and international scales.If Turkey wants to break the cage violently,it is easily to cause some conflicts with neighbor countries or cause conflict with big powers.But at last,the West need to accept Turkey who pursues an independent foreign policy.

Keywords:Turkey;Kurdish Issue;Westernization of Turkey's Foreign Policy

Author Profile:Li Bingzhong is a Professor, Vice Dean of the school of History and Civilization and Director of the Center for Turkish Studies of Shaanxi Normal University, China. He was a honorary member at the Center for Arab-Islamic Civilization in Exeter University, UK. His research interests are Turkish Studies, Kurdish issue and the European Union.


[1]本文系國家社科基金重點項目“土耳其國家治理難題研究”的階段性成果(項目編號: 17ASS003)。
《土耳其研究》2008年第1期(總第1期),第1~20頁。

[2] Emiliano Alessandri,Ian Lesser,Kadri Tastan,“EU-Turkey Relations:Steering in Stormy Seas,” German Marshall Fund,No.31,July 2018.

[3] 國內(nèi)外學術界還鮮有將庫爾德問題和土耳其西化外交綜合考量的文章,較多的討論是土耳其的西化外交,20世紀90年代后有較多的學者注意到庫爾德問題對土耳其外交的影響。“庫爾德因素對土耳其外交有重要影響……冷戰(zhàn)時期土耳其奉行親西方外交,將自身的國家利益與西方綁架在一起,特別是與美國的利益。”參見Omer Taspinar,Kurdish Nationalism and Political Islam in Turkey,New York&London:Routledge,2005,pp.166-167。土耳其曾經(jīng)是西方在中東的堅定盟友,然而西方導向的土耳其凱末爾主義精英們開始質(zhì)疑土耳其與西方的聯(lián)系。2008年民調(diào)顯示,土耳其是世界上對美國評價最低的國家。同樣,土耳其大部分人都在懷疑加入歐盟的可能性。參見Philip H.Gordon and Omer Taspinar,Winning Turkey:How America,Europe and Turkey can Revive a Fading Partnership,Washington:Brookings Institution Press,2008;縱觀土耳其整個現(xiàn)代史,其外交政策的主要目標就是成為西方的一員,成為西方真正的盟友。參見Yücel Bozda?lιo?lu,Turkish Foreign Policy and Turkish Identity:A Constructivist Approach,New York&London:Routledge,2003,p.57。

[4]庫爾德人跨境居住在土耳其、敘利亞、伊拉克和伊朗境內(nèi),四國庫爾德人主要聚居區(qū)在地理上聯(lián)成一片,這一特點決定了庫爾德問題有著強烈的區(qū)域和國際維度。

[5]土耳其西化的歷史至少有200年,這種西化本質(zhì)上是對西方挑戰(zhàn)在軍事、政治、經(jīng)濟和文化領域刺激的反應,但外交政策的西化則是較晚的現(xiàn)象。有學者認為,土耳其的反美主義屬于主權-民族主義式的反美主義,即美國在中東過度卷入的背景下,土耳其擔心主權受損,由此產(chǎn)生了民族主義的反彈,導致美國形象在土耳其的惡化。參見Ioannis N.Grigoriadis,“Friends No More? The Rise of Anti-American Nationalism in Turkey,” Middle East Journal,Vol.64,No.1,Winter,2010。

[6] 反美情緒指的是土耳其與美國就相關問題產(chǎn)生越來越多的歧見,但并非反對美國或者美國的價值觀,但這一趨勢正在發(fā)生某些質(zhì)變。另文討論。

[7] George C. McGhee,“Turkey joins the West,”Foreign Affairs,1953,Vol.32,No.1.

[8] Estimate of the will and ability of Turkey to maintain its alignment with the West,and the courses of action Turkey might follow in the event of war.Central Intelligence Agency,26 Feb.1951,U.S.Declassified Documents Online,http://tinyurl.galegroup.com/tinyurl/4yQwj2.Accessed 28 June 2017.

[9] Yucel Bozdaglioglu,Turkish Foreign Policy and Turkish Identity,Routledge,2003,p.60.

[10] 1963年希族領導人馬卡里奧斯暫時中止了《祖魯-倫敦協(xié)定》,決定重新修改憲法,意在建立一個希族全權統(tǒng)治下的獨立的塞浦路斯國家。土耳其謀求用武力保護土族塞浦路斯利益,伊諾努總理將土方意圖通知了美方。美國政府擔憂土耳其武裝干涉將導致土耳其和希臘間的戰(zhàn)爭,進而為蘇聯(lián)勢力進入東地中海提供借口。為此,林登·約翰遜總統(tǒng)向伊諾努傳遞了措辭嚴厲且極不友好的警告,指出土耳其一旦由于此舉引發(fā)蘇聯(lián)的介入,美國和北約都不會為土耳其的安全而戰(zhàn),土耳其被迫放棄該計劃。

[11] ?mer.Ta?pιnar,“The Anatomy of Anti-Americanism in Turkey,” The Brookings Institution,Nov.16,2005.

[12] Abbas Vali,Kurds and the State in Iran:The Making of Kurdish Identity,London:I.B.Tauris& Co Ltd,2011,p.38.

[13] Michael M.Gunter,“United States Foreign Policy towards the Kurds,”in The Kurdish Question in U.S.Foreign Policy,2004,p.3.

[14] Paul Henze provides Zbigniew Brzezinski with his evening report.Topics include:President Jimmy Carter's Decision to Provide Additional Economic Assistance to Turkey; Afghan Coup Plans; Ethiopian-U.S.Relations; Chinese-Ethiopian Relations; Greek Political Situation. National Security Council,26 Mar.1979,U.S.DeclassifiedDocuments Online,http://tinyurl.galegroup.com/tinyurl/6c47c7.Accessed 2 June 2018.

[15] Ian O.Lesser,“Beyond Suspicioin,Rethinking US-Turkish Relations,”Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars,2007.

[16]Telcon,President's Meeting with Prime Minister Turgut Ozal of Turkey,1990-08-03,Bush Presidential Records,George Bush Presidential library.

[17]Telcon,Telcon with Turgut Ozal,President of Turkey,1991-04-02,Bush Presidential Records,George Bush Presidential library.

[18]Telcon,Telcon with Turgut Ozal,President of Turkey,1991-04-15, Bush Presidential Records,George Bush Presidential library.

[19]Michael M.Gunter,The Kurds:A Modern History,Princeton:Markus Wiener Publishers,2017,p.38.

[20]Telcon,Telcon with Turgut Ozal,President of Turkey,1991-06-13,Bush Presidential Records,George Bush Presidential library.

[21]Telcon,President's Meeting with Turgul Ozal,President of Turkey ,1991-07-20,Bush Presidential Records,George Bush Presidential library.

[22] Clemence Scalbert-Yucel,“The ‘Liberalization’ of Turkish Policy towards the Kurdish Language:the Influence of External Actors,” in Robert Lowe and Gareth Stansfield,eds.,The kuridsh Policy Imperative,Chatham House,2010,p.121.

[23]Michael M.Gunter,The Kurds:A Modern History,p.42.

[24]Memcon,Meeting with Prime Minister Suleyman Demirel of Turkey,President of Turkey,1992-07-09, Bush Presidential Records,George Bush Presidential library.

[25] CIA,National Intelligence Estimates,The Kurds:Rising Expectations,Old Frustrations,September 1992,Secret.

[26] CIA,National Intelligence Estimates,The Kurds:Rising Expectations,Old Frustrations,September 1992,Secret.

[27] Ofra Bengio,“The Turkish-Israeli Relationship-changing ties of Middle Eastern Outside,” Palgrave,2004,pp.9-10.

[28]Kerim Yildiz,The kurds in Turkey:EU Accession and Human Rights, London:Pluto Press,2005,pp.120-121.

[29]Ian O.Lesser,“Beyond Suspicioin,Rethinking US-Turkish Relations”.

[30] Hamit Bozarslan,“Kurds and the Turkish state,”The Cambridge History of Turkey,Vol.4,2008,p.355.

[31]Kerim Yildiz,The Kurds in Turkey:EU Accession and Human Rights, London:Pluto Press,2005,p.121.

[32]Aliza Marcus,Blood and Belief:The PKK and the Kurdish Fight for Independence,New York University press,2007,p.301.

[33]Kerim Yildiz,The Kurds in Turkey:EU Accession and Human Rights,p.119.

[34] 庫爾德民主聯(lián)盟黨是土耳其庫爾德工人黨的敘利亞分支。

[35] Michael M.Gunter,The Kurds:A Modern History,p.126.

[36]“End of Peace Process Equals Disastrous Effects on Turkey's Economy,Political System:MIT Economist,”Hurriyet Daily News,Aug.4,2015.

[37]Cengiz ?andar,“Will he,won't he? Turks ponder whether Erdogan will invade Syria,”Al-Monitor,F(xiàn)ebruary 2016,http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/02/turkey-syria-united-states-possible-military-intervention.html.

[38]David L.Philios,“Research Paper:ISIS-Turkey List,” 1st September 2015,http://www.huffingtonpost.com/david-l-phillips/research-paper-isis-turke_b_6128950.html.

[39]Ambassador Morton Abramowitz and Ambassador Eric Edelman(Co-Chairs),“Turkey:An increasingly undependable Ally,” April 2015,Bipartisan Policy Center.

[40]Simon Tisddll,“Turkey's Rising Tention with Russian over Kurds Put Erdogan in a Corner,”The Guardian, 9 February 2016,http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/09/ever-heightening-tension-putin-puts-turkey-in-a-corner.

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