第五章則探討20世紀80年代時里根政府的國防改革。經歷越戰之后,美國在軍事上的失利促使文官和軍方反思,一系列博弈之后,國會通過了1986年《戈德華特-尼科爾斯國防部改組法》(Goldwater-Nichols DoD Reorganization Act)(下稱《戈德華特-尼科爾斯改組法》),對國防部進行重組。這次改革提高了參聯會主席和國防部長的權力,推動了文官和軍方的“雙向嵌入”。
[3] Fareed Zakaria,From Wealth to Power:The Unusual Origins of America’s World Role(Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1998).
[4] 對此的介紹,參見Douglas T.Stuart,Creating the National Security State:A History of the Law That Transformed America(Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,2008)。
[5] 對美國當前軍事實力使得美國更不安全的論述,參見Christopher A.Preble,The Power Problem:How American Military Dominance Makes Us Less Safe,Less Prosperous,and Less Free(Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,2009)。
[6] Richard K.Betts,“Should Strategic Studies Survive?”World Politics,Vol.50,No.1(October 1997),pp.7-8.
[7] Peter Gourevitch,“The Second Image Reversed:the International Sources of Domestic Politics,”International Organization,Vol.32,No.4(Autumn 1978),pp.881-912;〔美〕羅伯特·基歐漢、海倫·米爾納:《國際化與國內政治》,姜鵬、董素華譯,北京大學出版社,2003。
[8] Helen V.Milner,“Rationalizing Politics:The Emerging Synthesis of International,American,and Comparative Politics,”International Organization,Vol.52,No.4(Autumn 1998),pp.759-786.
[9] Robert D.Putnam,“Diplomacy and Domestic Politics:The Logic of Two-Level Games,”International Organization,Vol.42,No.3(Summer 1988),pp.427-460.
[11] 對此的介紹,參見Graham T.Allison,“Conceptual Models and the Cuban Missile Crisis,”American Political Science Review,Vol.63,No.3(September 1969),pp.669-707;Graham T.Alli-son,Essence of Decision:Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis(Boston:Little,Brown and Company,1971),chapter 3。也可參見Charles W.Ostrom,Jr.,“Evaluating Alternative Foreign Policy Decision-Making Models:An Empirical Test between an Arm Race and an Organizational Politics Model,”The Journal of Conflict Resolution,Vol.21,No.2(June 1977),pp.235-266;David A.Welch,“The Organizational Process and Bureaucratic Politics Paradigms:Retrospect and Prospect,”International Security,Vol.17,No.2(Autumn 1992),pp.112-146。
[12] Samuel P.Huntington,“Power,Expertise and the Military Profession,”Daedalus,Vol.92,No.4(Fall 1963),pp.785-807.
[13] 這些責任促使軍隊(1)視國家為基本的政治組織;(2)強調對國家安全威脅這一本質,并一貫好戰;(3)強調安全威脅的重大和急迫;(4)支持維系強有力、多樣和機動的軍事力量;(5)除非勝局已定,反對國家在戰爭中承諾和干預過多。參見Samuel P.Huntington,The Soldier and the State:The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations(Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,1957),pp.64-65。
[14] Morris Janowitz,The Professional Soldier:A Social and Political Portrait(New York:The Free Press,1960),pp.349-350.
[15] Morris Janowitz,“Organizing Multiple Goals:War Making and Arms Control,” in Morris Jannowitz ed.,The New Military:Changing Patterns of Organization(New York:Russell Sage Foundation,1964),pp.11-31.
[16] Jeremy Black,“Military Organisations and Military Change in Historical Perspective,”The Journal of Military History,Vol.62,No.4(October 1998),pp.871-892.
[17] Samuel P.Huntington,“Interservice Competition and the Political Roles of the Armed Services,”American Political Science Review,Vol.55,No.1(March 1961),pp.40-52.
[18] Samuel P.Huntington,“Organization and Strategy,” in Robert J.Art et al eds.,Reorganizing American Defense:Leadership in War and Peace(Washington,D.C.:Pergamon-Brassey’s International Defense Publishers,1985),pp.230-254.
[19] John C.Ries,The Management of Defense:Organization and Control of the U.S.Armed Services(Baltimore,M.D.:The Johns Hopkins Press,1964).對這一階段美國國防重組的介紹,還可以參見Demetrios Caraley,The Politics of Military Unification:A Study of Conflict and Policy Process(New York:Columbia University Press,1966)。也有學者從第一次世界大戰前開始研究,參見Paul Y.Hammond,Organizing for Defense:The American Military Establishment in the Twentieth Century(Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1961)。
[20] Stephen Peter Rosen,“New Ways of War:Understanding Military Innovation,”International Security,Vol.13,No.1(Summer 1988),pp.134-168.更為詳細的討論,參見Stephen Peter Rosen,Winning the Next War:Innovation and the Modern Military(Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,1991)。
[21] Michael H.Armacost,The Politics of Weapon Innovation:The Thor-Jupiter Controversy(New York:Columbia University Press,1969);Mark D.Mandeles,Military Transformation Past and Present:Historical Lessons for the 21st Century(Westport,C.T.:Praeger Security International,2007).
[22] Chris C.Demchak,Military Organizations,Complex Machines:Modernization in the U.S.Armed Services(Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,1991).
[23] William J.Lynn and Barry R.Posen,“The Case for JSC Reform,”International Security,Vol.10,No.3(Winter 1985/1986),pp.69-97.
[24] Richard G.Head,“The Sociology of Military Decision-Making:The A-7 Aircraft,”Pacific Sociological Review,Vol.16,No.2(April 1973),pp.209-227.
[25] 第二次世界大戰之后,在行為主義的影響下,新研究方法的利用使得社會科學學者對組織的研究逐漸深入,出現了研究組織的第一個黃金時期。其中最具有代表性的有兩個流派,第一個是哥倫比亞學派,以科層制為核心研究對象,注重探討組織的功能和反功能,代表文獻參見Peter Blau,Bureaucracy in Modern Society(New York:Random House,1956);Peter Blau and Richard Scott,Formal Organization:A Comparative Approach(San Francisco:Chandler Publishing Company,1962);Alvin W.Gouldner,Patterns of Industrial Bureaucracy(New York:Free Press,1954);Alvin W.Gouldner,“Metaphysical Pathos and the Theory of Bureaucracy,”American Political Science Review,Vol.49,No.2(June 1955),pp.496-507。第二個是卡內基-梅隆學派,主要是提出了有限理性的假定,即組織并非一個理性的行為體,而是一個有限理性的行為體,這些學者在此基礎上建構了一系列理論模式,代表性文獻參見Herbert A.Simon,Administrative Behavior:A Study of Decision-Making in Administrative Organization(New York:Macmillan Company,1951);James G.March and Herbert A.Simon,Organizations(New York:John Wiley & Sons,1958);James G.March ed.,Handbook of Organizations(Chicago:Rand McNally,1965)。
[26] Peter A.Hall and Rosemary C.R.Taylor,“Political Science and the Three New Institutionalisms,”Political Studies,Vol.44,No.5(December 1996),pp.936-957.也可以參見薛曉源、陳家剛主編《全球化與新制度主義》,北京:社會科學文獻出版社,2004;何俊志等編譯《新制度主義政治學譯文精選》,天津人民出版社,2007。
[27] Richard Snyder et al.,Decision Making as an Approach to the Study of International Politics,Foreign Policy Analysis Project,Foreign Policy Analysis Series No.3,Princeton University,1954.
[28] 參見Richard E.Neustadt,Presidential Power and the Modern Presidents:The Politics of Leadership from Roosevelt to Reagan(New York:The Free Press,1990)。
[29] 討論官僚政治模式分析外交政策的代表性文獻,參見Samuel P.Huntington,The Common Defense:Strategic Programs in National Security Politics(New York:Columbia University Press,1961);Graham T.Allison,“Conceptual Models and the Cuban Missile Crisis”;Richard E.Neustadt,Alliance Politics(New York:Columbia University Press,1970);Graham T.Allison,Essence of Decision;Francis E.Rourke,Bureaucracy and Foreign Policy(Baltimore,M.D.:The Johns Hopkins University Press,1972);Graham T.Allison and Morton H.Halperin,“Bureaucratic Politics:A Paradigm and Some Policy Implications,”World Politics,Vol.24,Supplement:Theory and Policy in International Relations(Spring 1972),pp.40-79;Morton H.Halperin,National Security Policy-Making:Analyses,Cases,and Proposals(Lexington,Mass.:Lexington Books,1975),chapter 1;David C.Kozak and James M.Keagle eds.,Bureaucratic Politics and National Security:Theory and Practice(Boulder,Colo.:Lynne Rienner,1988);Jonathan Bendor and Thomas H.Hammond,“Rethinking Allison’s Models,”American Political Science Review,Vol.86,No.2(June 1992),pp.301-322;David A.Welch,“The Organizational Process and Bureaucratic Politics Paradigms:Retrospect and Prospect”;Wendy L.Hansen et al.,“Specialized Courts,Bureaucratic Agencies,and the Politics of U.S.Trade Policy,”American Journal of Political Science,Vol.39,No.3(August 1995),pp.529-557;Thomas Preston,“Understanding and Evaluating Bureaucratic Politics:The Nexus Between Political Leaders and Advisory Systems,”Political Psychology,Vol.20,No.1(March 1999),pp.49-98;Daniel W.Drezner,“Ideas,Bureaucratic Politics,and the Crafting of Foreign Policy,”American Journal of Political Science,Vol.44,No.4(October 2000),pp.733-749;Eben J.Christensen and Steven B.Redd,“Bureaucrats versus the Ballot Box in Foreign Policy Decision Making:An Experimental Analysis of Bureaucratic Politics Model and Poliheuristic Theory,”The Journal of Conflict Resolution,Vol.48,No.1(February 2004),pp.69-90;Morton H.Halperin et al.,Bureaucratic Politics and Foreign Policy,2nd edition(Washington,D.C.:Brookings Institution Press,2006)。中文一些代表性的文獻,參見〔美〕詹姆斯·威爾遜《美國官僚政治:政府機構行為的動因》,張海濤等譯,北京:中國社會科學出版社,1995;〔美〕羅杰·希爾斯曼等:《防務與外交政策中的政治:概念模式與官僚政治》,曹大鵬譯,北京:商務印書館,2000;張清敏:《美國對臺軍售決策的官僚政治因素》,《國際政治科學》2006年第1期,第28—61頁;吳文成、梁占軍:《古巴導彈危機中的官僚位置與決策》,《國際政治科學》2006年第4期,第54—81頁;周琪:《官僚政治模式與美國外交決策研究方法》,《世界經濟與政治》2011年第6期,第34—51頁。
[30] 對官僚政治模式的概念解釋,參見Graham T.Allison,“Conceptual Models and the Cuban Missile Crisis,”pp.707-715;Graham T.Allison and Morton H.Halperin,“Bureaucratic Politics:A Paradigm and Some Policy Implications,”pp.43-56;Robert J.Art,“Bureaucratic Politics and American Foreign Policy:A Critique,”Policy Science,Vol.4,No.4(December 1973),pp.467-490。
[31] 例如,美國海軍內部就受到官僚政治的深刻影響,參見Paul T.Mitchell,“Ideas,Interests,and Strategy:Bureaucratic Politics and the United States Navy,”Armed Forces & Society,Vol.25,No.2(Winter 1999),pp.243-265。當然,也有學者不認同官僚政治對海軍政策模式的影響。例如,愛德華·羅茲(Edward Rhodes)就認為理念而非官僚組織利益影響海軍的政策模式,參見Edward Rhodes,“Do Bureaucratic Politics Matter?Some Disconfirming Findings from the Case of U.S.Navy,”World Politics,Vol.47,No.1(October 1994),pp.1-41。
[32] J.A.Stockfisch,Plowshares into Swords:Managing the American Defense Establishment(New York:Mason & Lipscomb Publishers,1973).
[33] Frederic A.Bergerson,The Army Gets an Air Force:Tactics of Insurgent Bureaucratic Politics(Baltimore,M.D.:The Johns Hopkins University Press,1978).與此類似,文森特·戴維斯也認為中層官僚在組織和技術創新中發揮著重要作用,參見Vincent Davis,The Politics of Innovation Patterns in Navy Cases(Denver,Colo.:University of Denver,1967),p.33。
[34] David A.Welch,“The Organizational Process and Bureaucratic Politics Paradigms:Retrospect and Prospect,”p.120.
[35] Stephen D.Krasner,“Are Bureaucracies Important?”Foreign Policy,No.7(Summer 1972),p.160.
[36] 代表性的研究,參見〔美〕彼得·卡贊斯坦《文化規范與國家安全:戰后日本警察與自衛隊》,李小華譯,北京:新華出版社,2002;〔美〕彼得·卡贊斯坦主編《國家安全的文化:世界政治中的規范與認同》,宋偉、劉鐵娃譯,北京大學出版社,2009。對軍事文化對美國行為的探討,參見Adrian R.Lewis,The American Culture of War:The History of U.S.Military Force from World War II to Operation Iraqi Freedom(New York:Routledge,2007);Benjamin Buley,The New American Way of War:Military Culture and the Political Utility of Force(New York:Routledge,2008)。
[37] Peter H.Wilson,“Defining Military Culture,”The Journal of Military History,Vol.72,No.1(January 2008),pp.11-41.
[38] 對軍事組織結構對國家行為的研究,參見Barry R.Posen,The Source of Military Doctrine:France,Britain,and Germany between the World Wars(Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,1984);Jack L.Snyder,The Ideology of Offensive:Military Decision Making and the Disasters of 1914(Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,1984);Barry R.Posen,Inadvertent Escalation:Conventional War and Nuclear Risks(Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,1992)。對軍事組織文化對國家行為的研究,參見Jeffrey W.Legro,“Military Culture and Inadvertent Escalation in World War II,”International Security,Vol.18,No.4(Spring 1994),pp.108-142;Jeffrey W.Legro,“Which Norms Matter?Revisiting the‘Failure’of Internationalism,”International Organization,Vol.51,No.1(Winter 1997),pp.35-38。也有學者認為,文官的文化是國家進攻性行為的重要原因,參見Elizabeth Kier,Imagining War:French and British Military Doctrine between Wars(Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1997)。
[39] Williamson Murray,“Does Military Culture Matter?”Orbis,Vol.43,No.1(Winter 1999),pp.27-42;Theo Farrell and Terry Terriff eds.,The Sources of Military Change:Culture,Politics,Technology(Boulder,Colo.:Pynne Rienner Publishers,2002).
[40] Eliot A.Cohen,Citizens and Soldiers:The Dilemmas of Military Service(Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,1985).
[41] Emily O.Goldman,“Cultural Foundations of Military Diffusion,”Review of International Studies,Vol.32,No.1(January 2006),pp.70-71.對軍事技術和觀念擴散的論述,還可參見Emily O.Goldman and Leslie C.Eliason eds.,The Diffusion of Military Technology and Ideas(Stanford,C.A.:Stanford University Press,2003)。
[42] Adam N.Stulberg,“Managing Military Transformations:Agency,Culture,and the U.S.Carrier Revolution,”Security Studies,Vol.14,No.3(July-September 2005),pp.489-528.
[43] Dima Adamsky,The Culture of Military Innovation:The Impact of Culture Factors on the Revolution in Military Affairs in Russia,the U.S.and Israel(Stanford,C.A.:Stanford University Press,2010),chapter 3.
[45] 代表性的討論,參見Henry A.Kissinger,Nuclear Weapons & Foreign Policy(New York:Council on Foreign Relations,1957);Scott D.Sagan and Kennth N.Waltz,The Spread of Nuclear Weapons:A Debate(New York:W.W.Norton & Company,1995),p.33。
[46] 《戰略研究雜志》在2004年有一期對此的主題研究,參見Emily O.Goldman et al.,“Information Resources and Military Performance,”The Journal of Strategic Studies,Vol.27,No.2(June 2004)。
[47] 約翰·霍普金斯大學華盛頓外交政策研究所研究報告《軍事技術的發展及其對美國戰略和外交政策的影響》,何慧譯,北京:世界知識出版社,1960;Robert L.Paarlberg,“Knowledge as Power:Science,Military Dominance,and U.S.Security,”International Security,Vol.29,No.1(Summer 2004),pp.122-151;Michael E.O’Hanlon,The Science of War:Defense Budgeting,Military Technology,Logistics,and Combat Outcomes(Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,2009),chapter 4。
[48] Hans Binnendijk ed.,Transforming American’s Military(Washington,D.C.:National Defense Univeristy Press,2002);Colin S.Gray,“Technology as a Dynamic of Defense Transformation,”Defense Studies,Vol.6,No.1(March 2006),pp.26-51;Harvey Sapolsky et al.eds.,US Military Innovation since the Cold War:Creation Without Destruction(New York:Routledge,2009).中國學者對此的研究,參見周建明《美國的國防轉型及其對中國的影響》,濟南:山東人民出版社,2006。
[49] Andrew F.Krepinevich,The Military-Technical Revolution:A Preliminary Assessment(Washington,D.C.:Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments,2002).
[50] William P.Delaney,“Air Defense of the United States:Strategic Missions and Modern Technology,”International Security,Vol.15,No.1(Summer 1990),pp.181-211.
[51] Peter Dombrowski and Eugene Gholz,Buying Military Transformation:Technological Innovation and Defense Industry(New York:Columbia University Press,2006).
[52] William M.McBride,Technological Change and the United States Navy,1865-1945(Baltimore,M.D.:The Johns Hopkins University Press,2000).
[53] David S.Alberts,Information Age Transformation:Getting to a 21st Century Military(Washington,D.C.:CCRP Publication Series,2002).
[54] Benjamin S.Lambeth,The Transformation of American Air Power(Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,2000).
[55] Charles Tilly ed.,The Formation of National States in Western Europe(Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1975);Charles Tilly,Coercion,Capital,and European States,AD 990-1990(Cambridge,Mass.:Basil Blackwell,1990).
[56] Kenneth N.Waltz,Man,the State and War:A Theoretical Analysis(New York:Columbia University Press,1954).
[57] Eugene Gholz and Harvey M.Sapolsky,“Restructuring the U.S.Defense Industry,”International Security,Vol.24,No.3(Winter 1999-2000),pp.5-51;Benjamin S.Lambeth,Combat Pair:The Evolution of Air Force-Navy Integration in Strike Warfare(Santa Monica,C.A.:Rand,2007).
[58] David McCormick,The Downsized Warrior:America’s Army in Transition(New York:New York University Press,1998).
[59] 對這一領域的研究很多,代表性的文獻,參見Zeb B.Bradford and Frederic J.Brown,The United Army in Transition(New York:Sage,1973);Richard Lock-Pullan,US Intervention Policy and Army Innovation:From Vietnam to Iraq(New York:Routledge,2006);Joseph Roger Clark,Innovation Under Fire:Politics,Learning,and US Army Doctrine(Ph.D.Dissertation,The George Washington University,2011)。
[60] L.Benjamin Ederington and Michael J.Mazarr,Turning Point:The Gulf War and U.S.Military Strategy(Boulder,Colo.:Westview Press,1994);Daryl G.Press,“The Myth of Air Power in the Persian Gulf War and the Future of Warfare,”International Security,Vol.26,No.2(Fall 2001),pp.5-44.對海灣戰爭中美國空軍作用的回顧,還可參見Eliot A.Cohen ed.,Gulf War Air Power Survey(Volume I,II,III,IV,V)(Washington,D.C.:Government Printing Office,1993)。
[61] Andrew J.Bacevich and Eliot A.Cohen eds.,War over Kosovo:Politics and Strategy in a Global Age(New York:Columbia University Press,2001);Daniel L.Byman and Matthew C.Waxman,“Kosovo and the Great Air Power Debate,”International Security,Vol.24,No.4(Spring 2000),pp.5-38.
[62] David H.Ucko,The New Counterinsurgency Era:Transforming the U.S.Military for Modern Wars(Washington,D.C.:Georgetown University Press,2009);Thomas Donnelly and Frederick W.Kagan eds.,Lessons for a Long War:How America Can Win on New Battlefields(Washington,D.C.:The AEI Press,2010).也可以參見Michael E.O’Hanlon,Defense Strategy for the Post-Saddam Era(Washington,D.C.:Brookings Institution Press,2005);Keith L.Shimko,The Iraq Wars and American’s Military Revolution(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2010);Chad C.Serena,A Revolution in Military Adaptation:The US Army in the Iraq War(Washington,D.C.:Georgetown University Press,2011)。對這一概念的梳理,參見葛騰飛、蘇聽《美國“反叛亂”理論的發展及其困境》,《美國研究》2012年第1期,第27—46頁;葛騰飛:《美國在伊拉克的“反叛亂”戰略》,《外交評論》2013年第2期,第78—94頁。
[63] William M.Donnelly,Transforming an Army at War:Designing the Modular Force,1991-2005(Washington,D.C.:Center of Military History,2007).
[64] Zeb B.Bradford and Frederic J.Brown,America’s Army:A Model for Interagency Effectiveness(Westport,C.T.:Praeger Security International,2008).
[65] 對機制的探討,參見Mario Bunge,“Mechanism and Explanation,”Philosophy of the Social Sciences,Vol.27,No.4(December 1997),pp.410-465;Tulia G.Falleti and Julia F.Lynch,“Context and Casual Mechanisms in Political Analysis,”Comparative Political Studies,Vol.42,No.9(September 2009),pp.1143-1166;John Gerring,“Causal Mechanisms:Yes,But…,”Comparative Political Studies,Vol.43,No.11(November 2010),pp.1499-1526。
[69] Gary King et al.,Designing Social Inquiry:Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research(Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1994),p.7.
[70] 需要指出的是,選取歷史事件的關鍵節點需要關注關鍵性前因(Critical Antecedents),對此的討論參見Dan Slater and Erica Simmons,“Informative Regress:Critical Antecedents in Comparative Politics,”Comparative Political Studies,Vol.43,No.7(July 2010),pp.866-917。
[71] 這也就是斯蒂芬·克拉斯納所謂的“斷續性平衡理論”,對此的論述,參見Stephen D.Krasner,“Approaches to State:Alternative Conceptions and Historical Dynamics,”Comparative Politics,Vol.16,No.2(January 1984),pp.223-246。
[73] 〔美〕斯蒂芬·范埃弗拉:《政治學研究方法指南》,陳琪譯,北京大學出版社,2006,第51—52頁。對案例研究的詳細探討,參見Robert K.Yin,Case Study Research:Design and Methods,3rd Edition(Thousand Oaks,C.A:Sage,2003);John Gerring,“What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?”American Political Science Review,Vol.98,No.2(May 2004),pp.341-354;John Gerring,Case Study Research:Principles and Practices(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2007)。
[74] Alexander L.George and Andrew Bennett,Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences(Cambridge,Mass.:MIT Press,2005),chapter 10;Andrew Bennett and Colin Elman,“Complex Causal Relations and Case Study Methods:The Example of Path Dependence,”Political Analysis,Vol.14,No.3(Summer 2006),pp.261-263;Andrew Bennett and Colin Elman,“Qualitative Research:Recent Developments in Case Study Methods,”Annual Review of Political Science,Vol.9,(June 2006),pp.459-460.對負面案例的論述,參見Rebacca Jean Emigh,“The Power of Negative Thinking:The Use of Negative Case Methodology in the Development of Sociological Theory,”Theory and Society,Vol.26,No.5(October 1997),pp.649-684。
[75] Andrew Bennett,“Process Tracing and Causal Inference,” in Henry Brady and David Collier eds.,Rethinking Social Inquiry(Lanham,M.D.:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers,2010),p.209.