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創(chuàng)業(yè)者與非創(chuàng)業(yè)者性格優(yōu)勢比較

1 創(chuàng)業(yè)者的性格優(yōu)勢

曾任美國心理學會主席的Seligman是一位真正第一次系統(tǒng)地提出積極心理學理論并將其付諸實踐的心理學家。以Seligman為代表的心理學家們認為,心理學不僅要關注心理疾病及其治療,更要關注讓所有人的生活更有意義,鑒別和培養(yǎng)天才Seligman M. Building human strength: psychology's forgotten mission[J]. APA Monitor, 1998, (1):2.。如果從精神治療的角度來看,積極心理學的實踐者致力于培養(yǎng)人的積極情緒和積極的性格特質,而在更廣泛的應用方面,積極心理學可以促進組織與機構的積極、健康地運行Seligman M, Csikszentmihalyi M. Positive psychology: an introduction [J]. American Psychologist, 2000, 55:5-14.

性格優(yōu)勢作為積極心理學研究的核心領域之一,是對人類有益的人格特征,有助于人類實現(xiàn)良好的個人生活、和諧的社會團體以及卓越而道德的社會Park N, Peterson C, Seligman M. Character strengths in fifty-four nations and the fifty US states[J]. Journal of Positive Psychology, 2006, 1(3):118-129.。對性格優(yōu)勢的實證分析研究表明,性格優(yōu)勢的發(fā)展與積極情緒、工作投入感、生活的滿意度和生活質量具有相關性Peterson C, Ruch W, Beermann U, et al. Strengths of character, orientations to happiness, and life satisfaction[J]. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2007, (2):149-156.。Peterson和ParkPeterson C, Park N. Character strengths in organizations [J]. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2006, 27:1149-1154.指出,一些性格優(yōu)勢能夠預測組織中人的積極行為,如熱情和希望與工作滿意度相關Peterson C, Stephens J P, Park N, et al. Strengths of character and work[M]//Linley P A, Harrington S, Garcia N. Oxford handbook of positive psychology and work. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010:221-231.,希望與生活滿意度Bailey T C, Eng W, Frisch M B, et al. Hope and optimism as related to life satisfaction[J]. Journal of Positive Psychology, 2007, (2):168-175.、韌性Peterson C, Ruch W, Beermann U, et al. Strengths of character, orientations to happiness, and life satisfaction[J]. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2007, (2):149-156.、工作績效Peterson S J, Byron K. Exploring the role of hope in job performance: results from four studies[J]. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2008, (29):785-803.和面向未來的責任導向Peterson C, Seligman M. Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification[M]. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.等具有相關性。性格優(yōu)勢大部分屬于特質類的人體特征,在很長一段時間內具有相當?shù)姆€(wěn)定性。

Peterson和SeligmanPeterson C, Seligman M. Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification[M]. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.邀請全世界50多位杰出的青年心理學家,從對人類社會影響最為廣泛的哲學、宗教和文化體系中提取了全人類普遍具有的24項性格優(yōu)勢,并歸類為6大美德,即“智慧與知識”“勇氣”“仁慈”“公正”“節(jié)制”“自我超越”,最終形成了《性格優(yōu)勢與美德分類手冊》,為心理學更為系統(tǒng)地對人的性格優(yōu)勢和美德進行分類和評估提供了工具。Park和PetersonPark N, Peterson C. Moral competence and character strengths among adolescents: the development and validation of the values in action inventory of strengths for youth[J]. Journal of adolescence, 2006, 29(6):891-909.等在不同國家進行了大量測評,并完善了性格優(yōu)勢的測量工具,即VIA優(yōu)勢量表(Values in Action Inventory of Strengths,VIA-IS)。VIA-IS對現(xiàn)有的人格特質理論在評估內容和目的上進行了有益的補充。VIA-IS測量的是性格優(yōu)勢,即人格特質的積極部分,可以指導人們發(fā)揮自己的現(xiàn)實能力和潛在能力以促進良好人格的發(fā)展。其測量內容不僅僅涵蓋個體的生理機制、外部行為,更注重社會文化環(huán)境的影響,強調社會文化對人格的塑造功能和積極人格的可成長性段文杰,李婷婷,張永紅.優(yōu)勢行動價值問卷及其應用研究進展[J].中國臨床心理學雜志,2011, 19(2):205-208.。雖然已有的創(chuàng)業(yè)者特質研究并未將性格優(yōu)勢引入,但是其中一些研究成果對于創(chuàng)業(yè)者核心性格優(yōu)勢的識別而言具有一定的借鑒意義。

創(chuàng)業(yè)活動的核心主體是創(chuàng)業(yè)者。Shane和VenkataramanShane S, Ventakaraman S. The promise of entrepreneurship as a field of research[J]. Academy of Management Review, 2000, 25 (1):217-226.認為,創(chuàng)業(yè)研究是“考察什么人通過何種方式去發(fā)現(xiàn)、評價和開發(fā)創(chuàng)造未來商品和服務的機會”,其提出的創(chuàng)業(yè)研究的三個基本問題之一是“為什么是一些人而不是另一些人能夠發(fā)現(xiàn)和開發(fā)這些機會”。“創(chuàng)業(yè)者”是創(chuàng)業(yè)學術研究中特別關注的對象Carsrud, A, Br?nnback M. Entrepreneurial motivations: what do we still need to know?[J]. Journal of Small Business Management, 2011, 49(1):9-26.,不少管理學者以及心理學家圍繞“誰是創(chuàng)業(yè)者”的問題都開展過一些研究,試圖發(fā)現(xiàn)創(chuàng)業(yè)者與非創(chuàng)業(yè)者之間的差異。一直以來,學者們熱衷于識別創(chuàng)業(yè)者特質,認為創(chuàng)業(yè)者富有創(chuàng)新精神Schumpeter J A. The Theory of Economic Development: An Inquiry into Profits, Capital, Credit, Interest, and the Business Cycle(Vol. 55)[M]. Transaction Publishers, 1934.    Baumol W J. Entrepreneurship, Management, and the Structure of Payoffs [M]. MIT Press, 1993.、喜歡冒險Knight F. Risk Uncertainty and Profits[M]. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1921.、雄心勃勃Ahl H, Marlow S. Exploring the dynamics of gender, feminism and entrepreneurship: advancing debate to escape a dead end?[J]. Organization, 2012, 19(5):543-562.且勇敢無畏Schumpeter J A. The Theory of Economic Development: An Inquiry into Profits, Capital, Credit, Interest, and the Business Cycle(Vol. 55)[M]. Transaction Publishers, 1934.。McClellandMcClelland D C. AchievingSociety[M]. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1961.    McClelland D C. Power: The Inner Experience[M]. New York: Irvington Publishers, 1975.    McClelland D C. Characteristics of successful entrepreneurs [J]. The Journal of Creative Behavior, 1987, 21(3):219-233.認為,與非創(chuàng)業(yè)者相比,創(chuàng)業(yè)者具有更強烈的成就需求、自治能力、權力欲和獨立性。Miller、KetsDeVries和ToulouseMiller D, Kets de Vries M, Toulouse J M. Top executive locus of control and its relationship to strategy-making, structure, and environment[J]. Academy of Management Journal, 1982, 25(2):237-253.發(fā)現(xiàn),成功的創(chuàng)業(yè)者傾向于相信自己能夠控制自己的命運,而不是受環(huán)境控制。最近的創(chuàng)業(yè)研究同樣顯示,創(chuàng)業(yè)者在心理特征方面具有特殊性,如創(chuàng)業(yè)自我效能Markman G, Balkin D, Baron R. Inventors and new venture formation: the effects of general self-efficacy and regretful thinking [J]. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 2002, 27 (2):149-165.    Rauch A, Frese M. Let's put the person back into entrepreneurship research: a meta-analysis on the relationship between business owners' personality traits, business creation, and success[J]. Journal of Working Organization Psychology, 2007, 16(4):353-385.,成就動機、積極人格、風險傾向、壓力承受度、自制Rauch A, Frese M. Let's put the person back into entrepreneurship research: a meta-analysis on the relationship between business owners' personality traits, business creation, and success[J]. Journal of Working Organization Psychology, 2007, 16(4):353-385.,大五人格Zhao H, Seibert S E. The Big Five personality dimensions and entrepreneurial status: a meta-analytical review[J]. Journal of Applied Psychology, 2006, 91(2):259-271.,激情Cardon M S, Zietsma C, Saparito P, et al. A tale of passion: new insights into entrepreneurship from a parenthood metaphor[J]. Journal of Business Venturing, 2005, 20(1):23-45.,自尊Arora P, Haynie J M, Laurence G A. Counterfactual thinking and entrepreneurial self-efficacy: The moderating role of self-esteem and dispositional affect[J]. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 2011, 37(2):359-374.,追求幸福的動力Hahn V C, Frese M, Binnewies C, et al. Happy and proactive? The role of hedonic and eudemonic well-being in business owners' personal initiative[J]. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 2012, 36(1):97-114.,以及認知、思維和情緒等Mitchell R K, Busenitz L, Lant T, et al. Entrepreneurial cognition theory: rethinking the people side of entrepreneurship research[J]. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 2002, 27(2):93-104.    Mitchell R K, Busenitz L, Lant T, et al. The distinctive and inclusive domain of entrepreneurial cognition research [J]. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 2004, 28(6):505-518.    Mitchell R K, Busenitz L, Bird B, et al. The central question in entrepreneurial cognition research[J]. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 2007, 31(1):1-27.    Baron R A. Cognitive mechanisms in entrepreneurship: why and when entrepreneurs think differently than other people[J]. Journal of Business Venturing, 1988, 13(4):275-294.    Baron R A. The cognitive perspective: a valuable tool for answering entrepreneurship's basic “why” questions[J]. Journal of Business Venturing, 2004, 19(2):22-239.    Baron R. The role of affect in the entrepreneurial process [J]. Academy of Management Review, 2008, 33(2):328-340.

Linley等Linley P A, Maltby J, Wood A M, et al. Character strengths in the united kingdom: the via inventory of strengths[J]. Personality & Individual Differences, 2007, 43(2):341-351.通過研究發(fā)現(xiàn),男性的核心性格優(yōu)勢為洞察力、公平、好奇心、好學和創(chuàng)造力,而女性的核心性格優(yōu)勢為公平、奉獻、洞察力、好奇心及好學。創(chuàng)業(yè)一直以來是一種男性化傾向極強的活動Bird B, Brush C. A gendered perspective on organizational creation [J]. Entrepreneurship theory and practice, 2002, 26 (3):41-66.,而社會的男性化規(guī)范會進一步強化對創(chuàng)業(yè)者“男性化”的預期Ahl H. Why research on women entrepreneurs needs new directions[J]. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 2006, 30 (5):595-621.,因此,創(chuàng)業(yè)者的核心性格優(yōu)勢,可能與男性的核心性格優(yōu)勢有較強的關聯(lián)。

本文以下部分運用來自中國的包含290個樣本的創(chuàng)業(yè)者和非創(chuàng)業(yè)者調查數(shù)據(jù),采用Peterson和SeligmanPeterson C, Seligman M. Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification[M]. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.提出的24類性格優(yōu)勢方式,通過創(chuàng)業(yè)者和非創(chuàng)業(yè)者的對比,識別創(chuàng)業(yè)者的核心性格優(yōu)勢。

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