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第一章 涉外法律文書(shū)概述

第一節(jié) 法律英語(yǔ)的詞匯特征

法律英語(yǔ)是一種專(zhuān)門(mén)用途英語(yǔ)(ESP),也是一種工具性語(yǔ)言(instrumental language)。美國(guó)法律語(yǔ)言研究權(quán)威梅林可夫(Mellinkoff)認(rèn)為“法律英語(yǔ)”指the English language of law,而加州大學(xué)的大衛(wèi)(David)教授主張用legal English來(lái)表述“法律英語(yǔ)”。本書(shū)討論的法律英語(yǔ)主要指以英語(yǔ)為母語(yǔ)的英美法(common law)國(guó)家的司法從業(yè)者,如律師、法學(xué)研究人員、法官、檢察官等在以法律為職業(yè)和以法學(xué)研究為目的的過(guò)程中所使用的法律語(yǔ)言。有時(shí)候?yàn)榱烁子诶斫夥捎⒄Z(yǔ)的特點(diǎn),會(huì)輔以我國(guó)法律條文作為例子從而更好地證明觀(guān)點(diǎn)。

在對(duì)法律英語(yǔ)進(jìn)行研究的過(guò)程中,Mellinkoff針對(duì)法律英語(yǔ)的詞語(yǔ)特點(diǎn)作了系統(tǒng)的分析,Crystal和Davy(1969)對(duì)法律文本的結(jié)構(gòu)和組織進(jìn)行了分析總結(jié)。他們認(rèn)為:1.法律語(yǔ)言是工具性語(yǔ)言;2.法律文件具有不同于其他類(lèi)文本的特征;3.法律英語(yǔ)具有明確的特點(diǎn);4.法律語(yǔ)言使用了日常英語(yǔ)不采用的語(yǔ)義規(guī)則。為了更好地理解法律英語(yǔ),本章節(jié)將從法律英語(yǔ)的詞匯特征、句法特征、語(yǔ)法特征等方面展開(kāi)詳細(xì)分析。

詞匯是構(gòu)成法律英語(yǔ)的基本單元,因此法律英語(yǔ)的詞匯研究是法律英語(yǔ)研究的關(guān)鍵。法律英語(yǔ)的詞匯特征,主要體現(xiàn)在以下幾個(gè)方面。

一、具有特殊法律涵義的普通詞匯

法律語(yǔ)言中有很多詞匯是由普通詞匯轉(zhuǎn)換而來(lái),和法律專(zhuān)業(yè)術(shù)語(yǔ)不同的是,這類(lèi)普通詞匯在法律語(yǔ)境中卻有著專(zhuān)業(yè)的涵義。準(zhǔn)確地掌握這類(lèi)專(zhuān)業(yè)詞匯的涵義需要讀者對(duì)所熟悉詞語(yǔ)的法律含義有一定的積累,并且在一定的語(yǔ)境中進(jìn)行邏輯分析,從而正確地理解。例如:

1.Damage

a.He maliciously damaged a car with a baseball bat.

b.The machines in the clothing factory were old and dangerous and one of the employees injured his hand.The employee sued the factory owners and got 5000 dollars in damages.

Damage在普通語(yǔ)境中一般作及物動(dòng)詞,表示“損害、損毀、破壞”之意(a句)。而在法律語(yǔ)境中,其經(jīng)常見(jiàn)于侵權(quán)法中,一般指代“侵權(quán)人向被侵權(quán)人支付的損害賠償金”,詞性為名詞,而且往往以復(fù)數(shù)形式出現(xiàn)。

2.Acceptance

a.The Party is being degraded by its acceptance of secret donations.

b.Acceptance cannot contain any suggested changes to the original offer.In addition,acceptance must be communicated and cannot be by silence.

c.Modification of acceptance of bill denotes acts on instruments that payers(acceptors)did – write and sign on the bills and eliminate his/her writings afterwards.

Acceptance通常意指“接受”(a句)。但是在合同法中,其意思為“承諾”,如b句所言,承諾不能夠沉默作出,而必須通過(guò)某種方式讓要約人知道,且承諾不能對(duì)要約作出任何改變,否則視為新的要約。而在c句中,acceptance的意思為“承兌”,是票據(jù)法中的一種票據(jù)行為。c句可翻譯為漢語(yǔ):承兌涂銷(xiāo)是指付款人(承兌人)在已承兌的匯票上將其記載的承兌予以消除的票據(jù)行為。

由此可見(jiàn),一個(gè)普通英語(yǔ)單詞在法律文本中的意思與其通常涵義有很大的區(qū)別,而且,在不同的法律語(yǔ)境中,其涵義也有所差異(如句子b和c)。要理解這幾個(gè)句子,不僅要求讀者具備英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言基礎(chǔ),更要求具備一定的法律知識(shí)。

3.Consideration

a.This problem should be reserved for further consideration.

b.In consideration of all the Services provided by ALT Services Ltd.,the Company shall pay the sum of 10000 dollars subject to the provision of the Services and satisfactory completion of work.

Consideration在普通語(yǔ)境中指“考慮”(a句),而在合同法中,其涵義為“對(duì)價(jià)”(b句)。句子可翻譯為:作為ALT Services Ltd所提供服務(wù)的對(duì)價(jià),公司應(yīng)依據(jù)所提供的服務(wù)和工作的圓滿(mǎn)完成而支付10000 美元。

而這樣的例子在法律英語(yǔ)中不勝枚舉,對(duì)比如下:

二、外來(lái)詞的使用

法律本屬于上層建筑,而英美法從產(chǎn)生到形成時(shí)期英國(guó)的統(tǒng)治者均是講法語(yǔ)的諾曼人,加之拉丁語(yǔ)的影響,因此法律英語(yǔ)中存在大量借用法語(yǔ)、古希臘語(yǔ)和古拉丁語(yǔ)中的專(zhuān)用詞匯,包括成語(yǔ)和短語(yǔ)。法律英語(yǔ)中廣泛使用拉丁詞和拉丁詞源的詞語(yǔ)使語(yǔ)言嚴(yán)肅冰冷,而從法語(yǔ)借詞則使法律語(yǔ)言顯得高貴典雅。

另外,隨著世界各國(guó)的交往日益頻繁,國(guó)家間法律語(yǔ)言的互相借鑒和援引也隨之增多,尤其是在國(guó)際交往中通用的法律用語(yǔ)。一些法律文獻(xiàn)上常用的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)外來(lái)詞已經(jīng)在人們的日常生活中得到認(rèn)可,其詞源逐漸為人們淡忘。

常見(jiàn)的拉丁語(yǔ)外來(lái)詞有:

常見(jiàn)的法語(yǔ)外來(lái)詞有:

舉例如下:

1.The decision of the judge in common law countries must form what is called the ratio decidendi of the case.This is the Latin for “the reasoning behind the decision”.This is the part of the judge’s words that provide the legal reasoning for his or her decision.Everything else the judge says is called obiter dictum.Obiter dictum is something that is not really necessary for the legal basis for the decision.Only the ratio decidendi is binding.

注:在英美法系國(guó)家,法官可以造法,即,法官的判決理由(ratio decidendi)可以成為法律,作為法官處理類(lèi)似案件的依據(jù),判決理由(ratio decidendi)具有強(qiáng)制約束力,而附帶意見(jiàn)(obiter dictum)僅具有參考價(jià)值,不具有強(qiáng)制約束力。ratio decidendi和obiter dictum都是來(lái)自拉丁語(yǔ)的外來(lái)詞,但是在法律英語(yǔ)中已經(jīng)成為非?;钴S的詞匯并被廣泛接受。

為了更好地理解ratio decidendi,請(qǐng)看下面的例子:

2.An Actress was employed for a season,but was delayed by illness from taking up her role until a week after the opening night.(來(lái)自英國(guó)判例Poussard v Spiers & Pond 1876)

Held:her employers were entitled to terminate the contract:her presence on the opening night was crucial to the contract.

該判例中,女演員因?yàn)樯?dǎo)致不能依約出席開(kāi)幕式,構(gòu)成合同重大違約,守約方有權(quán)解除合同。其中Held:her employers were entitled to terminate the contract:her presence on the opening night was crucial to the contract就是我們所說(shuō)的判決理由(ratio decidendi),該部分具有強(qiáng)制約束力?!癏eld”一詞一般被翻譯為:“法院認(rèn)為”。

為了更好地理解附帶意見(jiàn)(obiter dictum),請(qǐng)看下面例子:

3.The defendants owned a block of flats on land leased to them by the claimants.By September 1939,many flats had become vacant due to outbreak of war.Consequently,the defendants were having difficulties paying their ground rent.The claimants agreed that they would accept reduced payments.The defendants continued to pay the reduced rent even when the flats refilled and the war was over.

The claimants brought a test case claiming arrears of rent for the last two quarters of 1945(by which time the war had ended).(來(lái)自英國(guó)判例Central London Property Trust v High Trees House 1947)

Held:the claimants were found to be entitled to the arrears they claimed,but it was also held(obiter dictum)that had they claimed for arrears prior to the end of the war this would have been refused.It would be unfair to allow them to go back on their promise on which the defendants had naturally relied.The claimants’ gratuitous promise operated to suspend their rights to full payment while the extenuating circumstances in which the promise had been made continued to operate.

在上述法官觀(guān)點(diǎn)中,obiter dictum后面的內(nèi)容,就是我們所說(shuō)的法官的附帶意見(jiàn),該意見(jiàn)對(duì)于以后的案件具有指導(dǎo)性意義,但不具有強(qiáng)制性約束力。

另外,需要補(bǔ)充的是,上述判例確立了禁止反言原則(promissory estoppel),promissory estoppel也被稱(chēng)為High Trees doctrine(沿用判例名稱(chēng):Central London Property Trust v High Trees House)。上述判例大概的意思是說(shuō):戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)期間,房東同意給承租人降低房租,承租人信賴(lài)房東的諾言而同意繼續(xù)租賃房子,但是戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)結(jié)束后,房東不能食言向承租者追討承租人在戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)期間少交的房租,也即,禁止反言(promissory estoppel)。而戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)結(jié)束后,由于租房市場(chǎng)的復(fù)蘇,如果承租人繼續(xù)按戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)期間較低的租賃價(jià)格繳納房租,則房東則有權(quán)主張正常價(jià)格的租金。

Promissory estoppel(禁止反言)來(lái)自拉丁語(yǔ),該原則的大概意思是:under this principle,parties who gratuitously promise that they will not enforce existing contractual rights may lose their entitlement to do so if it would be unfair to allow them to go back on their promise;they are prevented(estopped)from breaking the promise.

另外,bona fide third party(善意第三人),null and void(無(wú)效)等外來(lái)詞在法律英語(yǔ)中也很常見(jiàn),針對(duì)其用法,此處不再贅述。

三、古英語(yǔ)的存在

古英語(yǔ)詞匯在現(xiàn)代英語(yǔ)中已很少使用,但在各種類(lèi)型的法律性文件中,依然隨處可見(jiàn)。一些古舊詞匯刪除后,并不會(huì)對(duì)法律文件的解讀有實(shí)質(zhì)的影響,因此在英美國(guó)家要求法律語(yǔ)言“簡(jiǎn)明化”的呼聲頗高,但一些律師和司法領(lǐng)域從業(yè)者認(rèn)為,為了使法律文件中的語(yǔ)言簡(jiǎn)練、嚴(yán)謹(jǐn),體現(xiàn)法律文句的權(quán)威性、嚴(yán)肅性和正規(guī)性,適當(dāng)使用古舊詞匯是必要的。因此,當(dāng)我們?cè)谝恍┓晌募锌吹竭@些詞匯時(shí),應(yīng)該理解他們的含義。

其中常見(jiàn)的一種古舊詞匯的形式是:副詞here/there+介詞。如 “herein”“hereon”“thereby”“thereon”等。“here”通常的涵義為“在此文件中、在此合同中,或者在該條款中”,而“there”一般指上文提到的文件、合同、條款等。如:

The persons herein after named 指的就是“在本文件之后所提及的人”

The sum of money borrowed and the interest thereon shall be repaid in full on June 6.此句中的“thereon”指該單詞前面所述“sum of money borrowed”。

The titles to the articles are for convenience of reference only,not part of this contract and shall not in any way affect the interpretation thereof.(本協(xié)議)各條款之標(biāo)題僅為查閱方便,非本協(xié)議之構(gòu)成部分,也決不會(huì)影響合同的解釋。其中“thereof”是指of the said contract。

對(duì)于具備一定英語(yǔ)知識(shí)的人來(lái)說(shuō),用英文來(lái)解釋常見(jiàn)的古舊詞匯,會(huì)更有利于理解,如:

1.Hereby——by means of this document/with that words/with this action.

“I hereby accept your offer.”

茲接受你的要約。

“The undersigned hereby certify that the goods to be supplied are made in the USA.”

下列簽署人茲證明所供應(yīng)之貨物在美國(guó)國(guó)內(nèi)制造。

2.Herein——in this document.

“The price named herein is final and non-negotiable.”

合同中的價(jià)格是最終的、沒(méi)有談判余地的。

3.Hereto——to this contract.

“All disputes arising from the performance of this Contract shall,through amicable negotiations,be settled by the Parties hereto” .

對(duì)于因履行本合同所發(fā)生的一切爭(zhēng)議,本合同雙方應(yīng)友好協(xié)商解決。

4.Hereinafter ——starting from this time/later in this document.

“ALT Electronics plc,hereinafter known as ‘the Company’.”

ALT Electronics plc在此后被稱(chēng)為“該公司”。

5.Heretofore——earlier in this document/previously/before the time of writing.

“The property heretofore known as Downing House is renamed Appleby House.”

此前所提及的名為Downing House的物業(yè)被重新命名為Appleby House。

6.Hereunder——in a later part of this document/under the terms of this agreement.

“The terms and conditions are listed hereunder.

合同中所列條款。

7.Thereby——as a result of this or that action.

“Your client signed the contract and thereby entered into a binding agreement.”

你的客戶(hù)簽署該合同并因此受合同約束。

8.Therein ——in or into a particular place or thing/in that/in there.

“The rented property and the furniture contained therein.

合同中所包含的租賃物業(yè)和家具。

9.Thereon ——on it/on there/on what I have just mentioned.

“The amount borrowed and the interest due thereon must be repaid by May 22,2016.”

所借本金和利息必須在2016年5月22日之前付清。

10.Thereinafter——later in that place or thing/later in what I have just mentioned.

“We were defined in that contract as the Company and we were known as the Company thereinafter.

在合同中,我們被定義為“該公司”,并在此后被稱(chēng)為“該公司”。

11.Thereto ——to it,to the thing that I have just mentioned.

“At the meeting we will discuss Mrs.Smith’ will and all matters related thereto.

在會(huì)議上我們討論了史密斯夫人的遺囑及與遺囑相關(guān)的所有問(wèn)題。

另外,還有一些古舊詞匯用來(lái)指代“本文件/合同/條款前面所提及的事物”,如said,aforesaid,aforementioned,the same.

1.The contract between the claimant and the defendant was signed in August.Said contract was for the supply of goods.

該句中的“said contract”指代句子所述“The contract between the claimant and the defendant”.

2.The goods should be inspected by the Buyer upon delivery.All goods come with a delivery note.In the event that goods cannot be examined by the Buyer the aforementioned document shall be marked “not examined”.

該句子中的 aforementioned document 指代句子中的delivery note.

3.Any defective goods must be returned to the Supplier.Said goods must be correctly packaged.

該句中的“said goods”指代句子中的defective goods。

4.Payment must be made upon delivery of the goods.The exception is where payment by invoice has been agreed.In the event of payment by invoice payment must be made within 30 days of receipt of the same.

該句中的“ the same”指代句子中的invoice。

四、詞語(yǔ)并列現(xiàn)象

法律英語(yǔ)中經(jīng)常出現(xiàn)一些近義詞并列使用的現(xiàn)象,即,用兩個(gè)或者三個(gè)意思相近或者相同的詞構(gòu)成一個(gè)短語(yǔ)以表達(dá)法律上本來(lái)只需要一個(gè)詞就能表達(dá)的概念,這體現(xiàn)了法律語(yǔ)言的嚴(yán)肅性和法律文本的準(zhǔn)確性和嚴(yán)密性,確保了整體含義的完整、準(zhǔn)確。如:

1.The amendments to or alteration of this contract become effect only after they are signed by parties hereto and approved by the original approving authorities.

譯文:該合同的任何修改只有在雙方簽署并由最初的審批機(jī)關(guān)批準(zhǔn)后方生效。

2.If the contract shall duly perform and observe all terms,provisions,conditions and stipulations of the said Contract,this obligation shall be null and void but otherwise shall be and remain in full force and effect.

譯文:如果承包人切實(shí)履行并遵守上述合同的所有條款、條件及規(guī)定,此義務(wù)即告終止,否則將保持完全有效。

除了上述兩個(gè)句子中的amendments to or alteration of,terms,provisions,conditions,and stipulations,null and void,in full force and effect等詞語(yǔ)并列現(xiàn)象外,其他常見(jiàn)的并列現(xiàn)象如下:

Any and all全部

Any duties,obligations or liabilities所有責(zé)任

Charges,fees,costs and expenses各種費(fèi)用

Covenants and agreements 合同、協(xié)議

Customs and usages慣例

Free and clear of無(wú)

Import duty and tax進(jìn)口稅捐

Keep secrete and confidential保密

Licenses and permits許可

Packing and wrapping expenses包裝費(fèi)

Rights and interests權(quán)益

Settle claims and debts清理債務(wù)

Ships and vessels船只

Sign and issue簽發(fā)

Support and maintenance維護(hù)

Use and wont習(xí)慣、慣例

Null and void無(wú)效

五、介詞短語(yǔ)的使用

為了體現(xiàn)法律語(yǔ)言的嚴(yán)肅性,法律英語(yǔ)的措辭風(fēng)格以嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)、莊重為主,多采用正式書(shū)面體。所謂法律文書(shū)中的正式詞匯,不但指相對(duì)于口語(yǔ)用詞而言的書(shū)面語(yǔ)用詞,尤其指普通書(shū)面語(yǔ)體中不常用的正式程度較高的詞匯或短語(yǔ)。如常見(jiàn)的書(shū)面體用語(yǔ)according to,concerning/regarding/ with regard to,但是在法律英語(yǔ)中,一般采用正式程度更高的、表達(dá)相同概念的詞匯如in accordance with,pursuant to及in respect of。

1.The participants in the Joint Venture shall commence discussion with regard to the extension of the period of existence of the Venture and in the event of their agreeing upon such extension,they shall record such agreement in a written document signed by all of them not later than three years prior to the expiry of the current period.

譯文:就本合資企業(yè)的存續(xù)時(shí)限的延期問(wèn)題,各方應(yīng)進(jìn)行討論;一旦各方就此達(dá)成一致,應(yīng)形成書(shū)面協(xié)議,由各方在本合同期限到期之前的三年內(nèi)簽字生效。

本句中的三個(gè)介詞短語(yǔ) with regard to,in the event of,prior to分別對(duì)應(yīng)三個(gè)介詞about,if,before。用介詞短語(yǔ)代替,更好地體現(xiàn)了法律英語(yǔ)的正式性。

其他類(lèi)似的用介詞短語(yǔ)來(lái)代替介詞的表達(dá)方式有:in the near future(soon),until such times as(until),on the part of(by),at the present time(now),during such time as(while),due to the fact that(because),notwithstanding(despite),inclusive of(including),referred to(named,called,mentioned)等。

另外,法律英語(yǔ)中經(jīng)常出現(xiàn)的兩個(gè)正式介詞或介詞短語(yǔ)有:notwithstanding和inasmuch as。

Notwithstanding的含義為:despite or in spite of something。如::

2.The new law concerning the protection of the environment will come into force next year,notwithstanding a huge amount of opposition to it from industry.

譯文:盡管有來(lái)自行業(yè)大量反對(duì)的聲音,新的有關(guān)環(huán)境保護(hù)的法律將會(huì)在明年生效。

而inasmuch as 的含義為:what you are saying in the rest of the sentence is true only in a limited way or to a certain extent。如:

3.The judge in the Court of Appeal held that the court of first instance made a mistake inasmuch as inadmissible evidence was taken into consideration.

譯文:上訴法院的法官認(rèn)為一審法院由于采信了不能采納的證據(jù)導(dǎo)致作出了錯(cuò)誤判決。

4.Caroline is a good lawyer inasmuch as she usually gets a good result in court.However,she is not very good at keeping up to date with important work.

譯文:卡羅林總是能夠取得好的訴訟效果,在這方面,她是個(gè)好律師。但是,她不太擅長(zhǎng)跟進(jìn)一些重要的工作。

六、專(zhuān)業(yè)詞語(yǔ)的使用

法律英語(yǔ)的正式性還體現(xiàn)在一些專(zhuān)業(yè)詞匯、甚至是生僻詞匯的使用,以體現(xiàn)法律英語(yǔ)的嚴(yán)肅性和正式性。如:

1.The Licensee will notify the Licensor and shall assist the Licensor in taking such action as the Licensor deems appropriate.

句子中的notify,assist,deem相對(duì)于常用的inform,help,think要正式很多。

2.The term “Effective date” means the date on which this Agreement is duly executed by the parties hereto.

該句中的execute相對(duì)sign要更加正式一些。

又比如用premises代替place來(lái)表示企業(yè)的經(jīng)營(yíng)場(chǎng)所,用commence代替start,用termination或者expiration代替end,用comply with代替obey,用subsequent to代替after,用procurement代替purchase,用term代替duration,用aggregate代替total,用undertake代替do等。

七、情態(tài)動(dòng)詞的特殊法律內(nèi)涵

在法律英語(yǔ)中,shall和may是經(jīng)常出現(xiàn)的兩個(gè)情態(tài)動(dòng)詞,然而在法律英語(yǔ)中,這兩個(gè)詞的使用方法和普通英語(yǔ)有很大的區(qū)別。

(一)Shall在法律英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)境中的使用

Shall在普通英語(yǔ)中通常構(gòu)成第一人稱(chēng)復(fù)數(shù)的將來(lái)時(shí)態(tài)。法律的主要功能有授權(quán)、使負(fù)擔(dān)義務(wù)或禁止,shall在法律英語(yǔ)中經(jīng)常表示一種義務(wù)性約定,體現(xiàn)當(dāng)事人必須承擔(dān)的責(zé)任和義務(wù),帶有指令性和強(qiáng)制性,也同時(shí)體現(xiàn)法律文件的權(quán)威性和約束性。它通常被譯為“應(yīng)、應(yīng)當(dāng)”,如:

(1)The quality and prices of the commodities to be exchanged between the eximporters in the two countries shall be acceptable to both sides.

譯文:貨物的質(zhì)量和價(jià)格應(yīng)當(dāng)使進(jìn)出口雙方都能接受。

(2)The board meeting shall be convened and presided over by the Chairman.Should the chairman be absent,the vice-Chairman shall,in principle,convene and preside over the board meeting.

譯文:董事會(huì)會(huì)議應(yīng)由董事長(zhǎng)召集、主持;若董事長(zhǎng)缺席,原則上應(yīng)由副董事長(zhǎng)召集、主持。

(二)May在法律英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)境中的使用

在普通英語(yǔ)中,may一般在疑問(wèn)句中用來(lái)提出請(qǐng)求,在陳述句中表示可能,或者表達(dá)祝福,但是在法律英語(yǔ)中,由于法律的強(qiáng)制性與指令性,may的通常含義是“給予許可或給予某人做某事的授權(quán)”,是一種選擇性約定,通常翻譯為“可以”。如:

A civil juristic act may be in written,oral or other form.If the law stipulates that a particular form be adopted,such stipulation shall be observed.

譯文:民事法律行為可以采取書(shū)面形式、口頭形式或者其他形式。法律規(guī)定是特定形式的,應(yīng)當(dāng)依照法律規(guī)定。

從該句中,我們也可以更好地理解shall和may的區(qū)別。根據(jù)法理學(xué)相關(guān)知識(shí),法律規(guī)則分為授權(quán)性規(guī)則和義務(wù)性規(guī)則,授權(quán)性規(guī)則是指規(guī)定人們有權(quán)做一定行為或者不做一定行為的規(guī)則,即規(guī)定人民的“可為模式”的規(guī)則,一般在這樣的規(guī)則中會(huì)出現(xiàn)情態(tài)動(dòng)詞may,表達(dá)一種選擇性約定。而義務(wù)性規(guī)則是指在內(nèi)容上規(guī)定人們的法律義務(wù),即有關(guān)人們應(yīng)該做出或者不做出某種行為的規(guī)則,一般在這樣的規(guī)則中會(huì)出現(xiàn)情態(tài)動(dòng)詞shall,表達(dá)一種義務(wù)性約定。上述法律條文的前半句是一種授權(quán)性規(guī)則,即,民事法律行為可以采取書(shū)面形式、口頭形式或者其他形式,故用may。而后半句是一種義務(wù)性規(guī)則,如果法律規(guī)定了特定形式,則應(yīng)遵循特定形式,故用shall。

八、法律英語(yǔ)的模糊性和精確性

根據(jù)L.A.Zadeh提出的模糊集合理論以及由此產(chǎn)生的模糊語(yǔ)言學(xué),我們知道法律英語(yǔ)作為自然語(yǔ)言之一,必然具有模糊性,法律英語(yǔ)的模糊性不僅存在,而且具有自身的作用。社會(huì)生活的多樣性和語(yǔ)言的限制性之間的矛盾造成法律英語(yǔ)必須具有概括性的特點(diǎn),從而產(chǎn)生模糊。另外,由于法律具有滯后性,由于社會(huì)及經(jīng)濟(jì)的逐步發(fā)展,社會(huì)文化、人們的思想意識(shí)、法律標(biāo)準(zhǔn)也在發(fā)生深刻的變化,過(guò)去某些被律師及法律工作者認(rèn)為是確定的法律名詞現(xiàn)在又被提出質(zhì)疑,從而產(chǎn)生了模糊性。如漢語(yǔ)法律文書(shū)中經(jīng)常用到“情節(jié)嚴(yán)重”“數(shù)額巨大”“多次盜竊”“其他”“任何單位和個(gè)人”等詞義模糊的詞語(yǔ),有很強(qiáng)的不確定性。英語(yǔ)法律語(yǔ)言也是如此,如 about,as soon as possible,necessary,average等。

以《中華人民共和國(guó)刑法》為例?!吨腥A人民共和國(guó)刑法》第264條規(guī)定:“盜竊公司財(cái)務(wù),數(shù)額較大的,或者多次盜竊、入戶(hù)盜竊、攜帶兇器盜竊、扒竊的,處三年以下有期徒刑、拘役或者管制,并處或者單處罰金;數(shù)額巨大或者有其他嚴(yán)重情節(jié)的,處三年以上十年以下有期徒刑,并處罰金;數(shù)額特別巨大或者有其他特別嚴(yán)重情節(jié)的,處十年以上有期徒刑或者無(wú)期徒刑,并處罰金或者沒(méi)收財(cái)產(chǎn)。” 該法條中,存在三種法定刑,主要由盜竊的數(shù)額決定的,而“數(shù)額較大”“數(shù)額巨大”和“數(shù)額特別巨大”很顯然是模糊的?!蹲罡呷嗣穹ㄔ?、最高人民檢察院關(guān)于辦理盜竊刑事案件適用法律若干問(wèn)題的解釋》第一條規(guī)定:“盜竊公私財(cái)物價(jià)值一千元至三千元以上、三萬(wàn)元至十萬(wàn)元以上、三十萬(wàn)元至五十萬(wàn)元以上的,應(yīng)該分別認(rèn)定為刑法第二百六十四條規(guī)定的‘?dāng)?shù)額較大’、‘?dāng)?shù)額巨大’、‘?dāng)?shù)額特別巨大’。各省、自治區(qū)、直轄市高級(jí)人民法院、人民檢察院可以根據(jù)本地區(qū)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展?fàn)顩r,并考慮社會(huì)治安狀況,在前款規(guī)定的數(shù)額幅度內(nèi),確定本地區(qū)執(zhí)行的具體數(shù)額標(biāo)準(zhǔn),報(bào)最高人民法院、最高人民檢察院批準(zhǔn)?!?/p>

比如在廣東省,盜竊價(jià)值在3000元(二類(lèi)地區(qū)2000元)以上為“數(shù)額較大”,而在貴州省,盜竊價(jià)值在1000元以上為“數(shù)額較大”。由此可見(jiàn),即使司法解釋規(guī)定了三種法定刑的入罪標(biāo)準(zhǔn),但由于各省經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展水平的差異,在數(shù)額認(rèn)定標(biāo)準(zhǔn)上,也是有區(qū)別的。即使在一個(gè)省內(nèi),一類(lèi)地區(qū)和二類(lèi)地區(qū)的入刑標(biāo)準(zhǔn)也有所區(qū)別。但是,也正是由于法律語(yǔ)言的模糊性,在解釋法律的時(shí)候,能夠考慮各地實(shí)際情況,使得法律能夠更好地得到適用。

同理,該法條中的“嚴(yán)重情節(jié)”“特別嚴(yán)重情節(jié)”也體現(xiàn)了法律語(yǔ)言的模糊性。由于模糊性具有包容原則,這使得法律能夠得以更廣泛的應(yīng)用。

而有時(shí)候模糊性和精確性卻是辯證統(tǒng)一的。如在傳票“你已被本院傳喚,請(qǐng)于接到本傳票之日起20日內(nèi)在本法院出庭”。翻譯為英文:“You are summoned to appear and answer this action in the Court named above by filing an Answer along with the required answer fee within twenty(20)consecutive days from the service of this summons,not including the day of service.If the twentieth day is Saturday,Sunday or a legal holiday,then this time shall run until the end of the next day which is NOT a Saturday,Sunday or legal holiday.”

在英文翻譯中,考慮到周末和法定節(jié)假日的影響,對(duì)于20日進(jìn)行了詳細(xì)解釋?zhuān)愿玫馗嬷?dāng)事人訴訟法中關(guān)于送達(dá)期間的規(guī)定,體現(xiàn)了法律英語(yǔ)的精確性。

又如:Shipment:To be shipped on or before Feb.28,2014.

譯文:2014年2月28日前(含28日)裝船。

on or before Feb.28,2014增譯為 “2月28日前(含28日)”,使得譯文更加精確和嚴(yán)密,避免導(dǎo)致曲解。

針對(duì)法律英語(yǔ)的模糊現(xiàn)象,法律文本的中英文兩種語(yǔ)言的轉(zhuǎn)換中,除了使用上述的增譯法之外,也可以采取省略法。如:

1.In all cases affecting ambassadors,other public ministers and consuls,and those in which a state shall be a party,the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction.In all the other cases before mentioned,the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction,both as to law and fact,with such exceptions,and under such regulations as the Congress shall make.

在英語(yǔ)中,such 是個(gè)模糊詞匯,意思是“這樣的”,但是在結(jié)構(gòu) “with such exceptions,and under such regulations as the Congress shall make”,如果譯為“國(guó)會(huì)有這樣的例外和規(guī)定除外”,原文意思就沒(méi)有得到恰當(dāng)?shù)谋磉_(dá)。而如果省略翻譯such,翻譯為“但國(guó)會(huì)規(guī)定為例外及另有處理?xiàng)l例者,不在此限”則顯得簡(jiǎn)明清晰多了。因此,可以將上述句子翻譯為:“在一切有關(guān)大使、公使、領(lǐng)事以及州為當(dāng)事一方的案件中,最高法院有最初審理權(quán)。在上述所有其他案件中,最高法院有關(guān)于法律和事實(shí)的上訴受理權(quán),但國(guó)會(huì)規(guī)定為例外及另有處理?xiàng)l例者,不在此限?!?/p>

英漢兩種語(yǔ)言中均存在大量的模糊詞語(yǔ),但譯者有時(shí)候可以直接采用直譯的辦法來(lái)處理這一現(xiàn)象,也可以很好地表達(dá)原文的信息。例如:

2.The applicant or the insured shall notify the Insurer in a timely manner of the occurrence of any insured event once it is known to them.

譯文:一旦發(fā)生保險(xiǎn)事故,投保人或被保險(xiǎn)人應(yīng)在知道后及時(shí)通知保險(xiǎn)人。

3.Unless this account is paid within twenty days,we will take further measures.

譯文:除非二十天內(nèi)把款付清,否則我們將采取進(jìn)一步的措施。

對(duì)于這句話(huà)中的“take further measures”,完全可以用“start legal proceedings”或“bring lawsuit”等來(lái)代替。但是用模糊詞語(yǔ)“take further measures”使得表達(dá)更加含蓄、委婉,緩解了可能的訴訟給雙方帶來(lái)的緊張局面。

另外,通過(guò)意譯法(free translation),根據(jù)原文的精神實(shí)質(zhì),使譯文更忠實(shí)通順地表達(dá)原文的思想內(nèi)容而增加或減少適當(dāng)?shù)脑~語(yǔ),而非機(jī)械地保持原文與譯文在詞量或字面含義上的對(duì)等,也有助于解決法律英語(yǔ)模糊性造成的在實(shí)務(wù)寫(xiě)作和翻譯方面的困難,如:

4.The Insurer shall have the right to terminate the insurance contract,in the case that the applicant intentionally does not perform his/her obligation of making a full and accurate disclosure,or fails,due to gross negligence,to perform such obligation to the extent that it would materially affect the Insurer’s decision whether or not to underwrite the insurance or whether or not to increase the premium rate.

譯文:投保人故意或因重大過(guò)失未履行如實(shí)告知義務(wù),足以影響保險(xiǎn)人決定是否同意承?;蛘咛岣弑kU(xiǎn)費(fèi)率的,保險(xiǎn)人有權(quán)解除保險(xiǎn)合同。

Materially本意是“本質(zhì)上”,譯文靈活處理,將其翻譯為“足以”,顯得更為簡(jiǎn)潔。

5.This Agreement may be immediately terminated by one of the Parties,without compensation from either side,in case of bankruptcy,winding up,or legal or factual,direct or indirect,taking over by a third party of the other party.

譯文:如果一方破產(chǎn)、解散或在法律上或事實(shí)上直接或間接地被第三方所接管,另一方可立即終止本協(xié)議,任何一方無(wú)須就此做出賠償。

原句中,one of the Parties不能直譯為“一方”,或者“任何一方”,而應(yīng)根據(jù)語(yǔ)境靈活翻譯為“另一方”。同理,the other party應(yīng)翻譯為“一方”,表達(dá)協(xié)議終止的一種假設(shè)情形。

九、名詞化結(jié)構(gòu)的使用

“語(yǔ)法隱喻”這一概念是Halliday在《功能語(yǔ)法導(dǎo)論》(1985)中首先提出來(lái)的。根據(jù)系統(tǒng)功能語(yǔ)言學(xué)理論,語(yǔ)言是由音系層(phonology)、詞匯語(yǔ)法層(lexico-grammar)和話(huà)語(yǔ)意義層(discourse semantics)構(gòu)成的三層次符號(hào)系統(tǒng),且三個(gè)層次之間是體現(xiàn)和被體現(xiàn)的關(guān)系,即,音系層體現(xiàn)了詞匯語(yǔ)法層,而詞匯語(yǔ)法層體現(xiàn)了話(huà)語(yǔ)意義層。體現(xiàn)方式大致有兩種:(1)一致式(congruent form),即無(wú)標(biāo)記形式;(2)非一致式(incongruentform),或隱喻式,即有標(biāo)記形式。

所謂一致式,就是通過(guò)用名詞體現(xiàn)事件過(guò)程的參與者,用動(dòng)詞體現(xiàn)過(guò)程本身,用形容詞體現(xiàn)事物的特征,用副詞或介詞詞組體現(xiàn)時(shí)間、地點(diǎn)、工具、方式等環(huán)境意義(circumstantial meaning),用連詞體現(xiàn)邏輯意義,從而使詞匯語(yǔ)法層所表達(dá)的表層意義和話(huà)語(yǔ)意義層所表達(dá)的深層意義彼此相同。但是,如果詞匯語(yǔ)法層所表達(dá)的表層意義和話(huà)語(yǔ)意義層所表達(dá)的深層意義不一致,例如,用名詞體現(xiàn)過(guò)程、用名詞體現(xiàn)特征、用動(dòng)詞體現(xiàn)時(shí)間關(guān)系或因果關(guān)系等,使詞匯語(yǔ)法層所表達(dá)的表層意義和話(huà)語(yǔ)意義層所表達(dá)的深層意義變得不一致,屬于有標(biāo)記形式,就是非一致式,這種現(xiàn)象也叫語(yǔ)法隱喻,其中名詞化就是其中一種常見(jiàn)的形式。例如:

[a] The man drove the car too fast down the slope,so the brakes failed.

[b] The man’s overrapid downslope driving of the car caused brake failure.

[a]屬于一致式,三個(gè)動(dòng)作參與者分別用名詞the man,the car和the brake表示,動(dòng)詞drive和fail分別表示兩個(gè)過(guò)程,用副詞詞組so fast體現(xiàn)表示速度的環(huán)境意義,用介詞詞組down the slope體現(xiàn)表示方向的環(huán)境意義,由連詞so體現(xiàn)表示因果關(guān)系的邏輯意義。而[b]則屬于非一致式,三個(gè)動(dòng)作參與者和環(huán)境意義都變成了名詞詞組中的修飾成分,邏輯意義變成了過(guò)程本身,而過(guò)程卻通過(guò)名詞化的使用變成了參與者。

作為語(yǔ)法隱喻的一種重要體現(xiàn)形式,名詞化(normalization)就是“將過(guò)程和特性經(jīng)過(guò)隱喻化,不再是小句中的過(guò)程或修飾語(yǔ),而是以名詞形式體現(xiàn)的參與者”(胡壯麟,1996),或者是“將小句通過(guò)變?yōu)槊~或名詞詞組的方式,使表過(guò)程的動(dòng)詞或表性質(zhì)的形容詞具有名詞特征,從而減少及物性小句,使自然語(yǔ)義句的信息密度增大”的一種表達(dá)形式(楊敏,2004)。

Quirk等人(1985)從詞性轉(zhuǎn)換的角度對(duì)名詞化作過(guò)界定,把它看作是“一個(gè)在形態(tài)上與小句謂語(yǔ)相對(duì)應(yīng)的名詞短語(yǔ)”。也有人將名詞化視為動(dòng)詞或形容詞用作名詞這一語(yǔ)言現(xiàn)象。一般認(rèn)為,名詞化指的就是把某個(gè)過(guò)程或特征看作事物,并通過(guò)詞性轉(zhuǎn)換使得這種現(xiàn)象得以實(shí)現(xiàn)。

一般說(shuō)來(lái),語(yǔ)篇的技術(shù)性與名詞化出現(xiàn)的頻率是成正比的,即,語(yǔ)篇的技術(shù)性越高,名詞化出現(xiàn)的頻率越高。反之,名詞化使用得越多,語(yǔ)篇的技術(shù)性越強(qiáng)(Halliday 1998b)。因此,科技、法律語(yǔ)篇作為技術(shù)性較高的語(yǔ)篇,名詞化的語(yǔ)法隱喻出現(xiàn)的頻率也較高。而小說(shuō)、寓言等文學(xué)類(lèi)語(yǔ)篇的技術(shù)性較低,名詞化出現(xiàn)的頻率較低。

學(xué)者王晉軍從實(shí)證主義分析的角度對(duì)五種不同類(lèi)型的語(yǔ)篇進(jìn)行了分析統(tǒng)計(jì),統(tǒng)計(jì)結(jié)果表明:名詞化在法律語(yǔ)篇中的比例為83.5%,科技語(yǔ)篇為72.6%,新聞?wù)Z篇為40.3%,小說(shuō)和寓言故事分別為27.2%和0.7%。由此可見(jiàn),法律語(yǔ)篇中充滿(mǎn)大量的名詞化結(jié)構(gòu),而且法律語(yǔ)篇的正式性、嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)性、準(zhǔn)確性、莊重性等必然要求大量使用名詞化結(jié)構(gòu)。通過(guò)在法律語(yǔ)篇中使用語(yǔ)法隱喻,可以實(shí)現(xiàn)信息濃縮或虛化,從而泛化特定行為概念,虛化行為概念的主體和受體,增強(qiáng)法律的適用性。

以上分析表明,語(yǔ)法隱喻存在多種情形,名詞化是最主要的情形,也是法律英語(yǔ)的典型特征。在運(yùn)用法律英語(yǔ)的過(guò)程中,如何運(yùn)用名詞化結(jié)構(gòu),從而使法律英語(yǔ)文本簡(jiǎn)潔緊湊、信息密集、使法律英語(yǔ)文本符合規(guī)范的表達(dá)方式,可以從以下幾個(gè)方面來(lái)運(yùn)用名詞化結(jié)構(gòu):

1.將動(dòng)賓結(jié)構(gòu)轉(zhuǎn)譯成英文名詞化結(jié)構(gòu)

(1)公司股東依法享有資產(chǎn)收益、參與重大決策選擇管理者等權(quán)利。

Shareholders of a company shall be entitled to gains on assets,participation in major decision-making and selection of managers in accordance with the law.

(2)設(shè)立外資企業(yè),必須有利于中國(guó)國(guó)民經(jīng)濟(jì)的發(fā)展,并且采用先進(jìn)的技術(shù)和設(shè)備,或者產(chǎn)品全部出口或者大部分出口。

The establishment of foreign-invested enterprises shall be beneficial to the development of China’s national economy;they shall use advanced technology and equipment or market all or most of their products outside China.

2.將狀語(yǔ)成分轉(zhuǎn)譯成英文名詞化結(jié)構(gòu)

無(wú)論本協(xié)議是否有相反規(guī)定,如任一方被法律訴訟或政府法規(guī)要求披露在此接收的保密信息時(shí),該方應(yīng)立即通知另一方上述要求,且應(yīng)另一方的要求該方應(yīng)配合另一方對(duì)此披露要求進(jìn)行抗辯。除未能履行前款所述義務(wù)外,雙方對(duì)于依司法程序或政府法規(guī)所做披露而造成的損失概不負(fù)責(zé)。

Notwithstanding any contrary provisions herein contained,should either party be faced with legal action or a requirement under governmental regulations to disclose Confidential Information received hereunder,such party shall promptly notify the furnishing party of such requirement,and upon the request of the furnishing party,shall cooperate with the furnishing party in contesting such disclosure.Except in connection with failure to discharge responsibilities set forth in the preceding sentence, neither party shall be liable in damages for any disclosure pursuant to judicial action or governmental regulations.

3.將小分句轉(zhuǎn)譯為英文名詞化結(jié)構(gòu)

(1)限制民事行為能力人訂立的合同,經(jīng)法定代理人追認(rèn)后,該合同有效,但純獲利益的合同或者與其年齡、智力、精神健康狀況相適應(yīng)而訂立的合同,不必經(jīng)法定代理人追認(rèn)。

A contract concluded by a person with limited civil capacity for conduct becomes effective upon ratification by its legal agent(s),provided that a contract from which such person accrues benefits only or the conclusion of which is appropriate for his age,intelligence or mental health does not require ratification by his legal agent(s).

(2)只有在另一方事先書(shū)面同意經(jīng)董事會(huì)一致通過(guò)經(jīng)審批機(jī)關(guān)批準(zhǔn)后,一方才可向第三方出售、轉(zhuǎn)讓或以其他方式處置(合稱(chēng)“轉(zhuǎn)讓”)其對(duì)合營(yíng)公司注冊(cè)資本享有的全部或部分權(quán)益。

A party may sell,transfer or otherwise dispose of(each a “transfer”)all or any part of its interest in the registered capital of the Company to any third party only with prior written consent of the other party,the approval of the Board and the approval of the Examination and Approval Authority.

(3)民事主體從事民事活動(dòng),應(yīng)當(dāng)有利于節(jié)約資源、保護(hù)生態(tài)環(huán)境。

Any civil activity conducted by civil subjects shall be conducive to saving resources and protecting the ecological environment.

4.將“…的”結(jié)構(gòu)轉(zhuǎn)譯為英文名詞性結(jié)構(gòu)

在法律文本中,會(huì)有大量的“…的”結(jié)構(gòu)表述假設(shè)或者條件,對(duì)于此結(jié)構(gòu),也可以通過(guò)轉(zhuǎn)過(guò)為名詞性結(jié)構(gòu)的方式進(jìn)行處理。

(1)有限責(zé)任公司變更為股份有限公司的,或者股份有限公司變更為有限責(zé)任公司的,公司變更前的債權(quán)、債務(wù)由變更后的公司承繼。

In the case of a conversion from a limited liability company into a company limited by shares or vice versa,the liability of the company before the conversion shall be assumed by the converted company.

(2)上市公司重大資產(chǎn)重組存在下列情形之一的,應(yīng)當(dāng)提交并購(gòu)重組委審核。

Any of the following circumstances arising in a listed company’s major assets restructuring shall be submitted to the Listed Company Merger and Reorganization Examination Committee for examination.

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