本章小結(jié)
任何政策都不是憑空產(chǎn)生的，而是在對外部壓力和國內(nèi)環(huán)境進(jìn)行研究之后，由具有一定組織特色的機(jī)制和有傾向性的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人做出的。
由于“二戰(zhàn)”的影響，英帝國賴以生存的世界格局不復(fù)存在，世界殖民體系遭受重大打擊。雖然，各殖民宗主國在美國的默許和幫助下，試圖恢復(fù)舊有的殖民體系，但是在世界民族解放運(yùn)動(dòng)和國際共產(chǎn)主義運(yùn)動(dòng)的雙重打擊下，日益分崩離析。為了維護(hù)舊有的殖民體系，英國發(fā)動(dòng)了侵略埃及的蘇伊士戰(zhàn)爭，結(jié)果卻向世人展現(xiàn)出自己國力的虛弱，受經(jīng)濟(jì)實(shí)力局限的軍事實(shí)力已不足以四處維護(hù)殖民統(tǒng)治。這構(gòu)成了英國政府所面臨的外部壓力。
英國政府還需面對復(fù)雜的國內(nèi)環(huán)境。在金融—軍政利益集團(tuán)聯(lián)盟的影響下，戰(zhàn)后英國國內(nèi)政治由三大變量構(gòu)成：社會危機(jī)、公眾輿論和政府協(xié)調(diào)策略。社會危機(jī)引發(fā)公眾輿論，政府在公眾輿論的框架中制定政策。戰(zhàn)后英國國內(nèi)政治面臨公眾對國家政權(quán)合法性、帝國合法性的質(zhì)疑。質(zhì)疑集中表現(xiàn)在兩個(gè)方面：一是建設(shè)福利國家的公眾需求與維持帝國開支的政治需求之間的平衡性被打破，二是公眾帝國自豪感的逐步喪失。在公眾輿論的壓力下，利益集團(tuán)聯(lián)盟走向解體。在此情況下，英國政府被動(dòng)采取了一系列措施，經(jīng)歷印巴獨(dú)立和撒哈拉以南非洲殖民地獨(dú)立，使英帝國過渡到英聯(lián)邦?？梢赃@么說，帝國解體的重要原因之一是居于統(tǒng)治地位的利益集團(tuán)聯(lián)盟喪失了維系帝國的能力。
英國的政黨體制獨(dú)具特色，是英國政府?dāng)M定政策的有利條件。兩黨制使工黨或保守黨政府具有比法國多黨制政府更為穩(wěn)定的地位。內(nèi)閣集體負(fù)責(zé)的慣例增強(qiáng)了政府對工黨或保守黨內(nèi)反對派的抗?fàn)幜Γ驗(yàn)椴恢С謨?nèi)閣可能導(dǎo)致自己政黨的下臺。而黨魁的推舉制度使首相在內(nèi)閣中具有突出的地位。這些都是戴高樂以前的法國政府首腦所不具備的。無疑，這一體制因素有助于維持英國政局的穩(wěn)定，在一定程度上可以解釋英國的非殖民化過程為何較為平穩(wěn)。
正是在上述環(huán)境中，英國政府領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人發(fā)揮出自己的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)風(fēng)格。如艾德禮打出“改良”的旗號，構(gòu)建以撒哈拉以南非洲為中心的帝國。丘吉爾和艾登一心想鞏固帝國并采取相應(yīng)措施，卻由于發(fā)動(dòng)蘇伊士運(yùn)河戰(zhàn)爭嚴(yán)重削弱了帝國。麥克米倫發(fā)揮其柔性和重視實(shí)效的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)風(fēng)格，正確認(rèn)識到英國國力進(jìn)一步相對衰落的現(xiàn)實(shí)，及時(shí)跟上時(shí)代的發(fā)展，主持了英國在英屬撒哈拉以南非洲的殖民撤退。對他們?nèi)纹谡叩脑敿?xì)分析將在本書第二章中展開。
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[81]M.Camps,“Missing the Boat at Messina and Other Times?”in Brivati and Jones,eds.,From Reconstruction to Integration,p.141.
[82]F.Heinlein,Brititsh Government Policy and Decolonisation,1945-1963,London: Frank Cass,2002.
[83]Stephen Howe,Anticolonialism in British Politics,1918-1964:The Left and the End of Empire,Oxford: Clarendon Press,1993; Stuart Ward,British Culture and the End of Empire,Manchester:Manchester University Press,2001; Philip Murphy,Party Politics and Decolonization,Oxford: Oxford University Press,1995；陳仲丹：《英帝國解體原因探析》,《南京大學(xué)學(xué)報(bào)》1994年第4期。
[84]D.K.Fieldhouse,Black Africa,1945-1980.
[85]P.J.Cain and A.G.Hopkins,British Imperialism,1688-2000.
[86]Lance Davis and Robert Huttenback,Mammon and the Pursuit of Empire: The Politi cal Economy of British Imperialism,1860-1912.
[87]有種觀點(diǎn)認(rèn)為：在英帝國解體過程中，民眾對帝國漠不關(guān)心。著名英帝國史學(xué)者J.加拉格爾（Gallagher）曾強(qiáng)調(diào)英國選民對帝國政策的影響，并強(qiáng)調(diào)帝國維持的鐵律即帝國須自我維持，不對國內(nèi)的納稅人造成負(fù)擔(dān)。見JohnGallagher,The Decline,Revival,and Fall of the British Empire: The Ford Lectures and Other Essays,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1982,p.79.以約翰·麥肯齊（John M.MacKenzie）為首的一批學(xué)者同樣批判了民眾漠不關(guān)心說。他們提出該說是英國國內(nèi)右翼的政治宣傳，實(shí)際上英國大眾文化中蘊(yùn)藏著帝國情結(jié)，對帝國瓦解進(jìn)程中的政府政策產(chǎn)生了影響。見Stuart Ward,British Culture and the End of Empire。
[88]有種觀點(diǎn)認(rèn)為，英國經(jīng)濟(jì)不需要殖民地紓困，殖民地經(jīng)濟(jì)反而造成英國經(jīng)濟(jì)增長乏力。限于本書主題，此處不做過多說明。著名英國經(jīng)濟(jì)史學(xué)者D.K.菲爾德豪斯認(rèn)為，在20世紀(jì)帝國對英國經(jīng)濟(jì)做出了顯著的貢獻(xiàn)。詳見J.M.Brown and W.M.Roger Louis:The Oxford History of the British Empire: Twentieth Century,Ⅳ,Oxford: Oxford University Press,1999,pp.88-113。
[89]David Sanders,LosingAn Empire,Finding A Role,London: St.Martin's Press,1990,p.49.
[90]D.Morgan,The Official History of Colonial Development,Developing Colonial Resources,1945-1951,Second Volume,London:Macmillan Press,1980,First Chapter.
[91]英國內(nèi)閣檔案：CAB129/52,C（52）196,7 Jun 1952,“經(jīng)濟(jì)政策”麥克米倫先生所作內(nèi)閣備忘錄，in David Goldsworthy,edit.,British Documents on the End of Empire: The Conservative Government and the End of Empire,1951-1957,London: HMSO,2000，第3冊，第369號文件。
[92]Philip Murphy,Party Politics and Decolonization: The Conservative Party and British Colonial Policy in Tropi cal Africa,1951-1964,p.22.
[93]A.Hinds,Britain's Sterling Colonial Policy and Decolonization,1939-1958,Westport:Greenwood Press,2001;Gerold Krozewski,Money and the End of Empire: British International Economic Policy and the Colonies,1947-1958,New York: Palgreave,2001.
[94]J.M.Brown and W.M.Roger Louis:The Oxford History of the British Empire: Twentieth Century,Ⅳ,p.109.
[95]W.Roger Louis,Imperialism at Bay: The United States and the Decolonization of the British Empire,1941-1945,p.14.
[96]W.Webster,Englishness and Empire,1939-1965,Oxford: Oxford University Press,2005,pp.7-8.
[97]英國內(nèi)閣檔案：CAB 130/153,GEN624/10,1958年6月9日，“聯(lián)合王國在世界事務(wù)中的地位”：官方報(bào)告，in Ronald Hyam and Wm Roger Louis,eds.,British Documents on the End of Empire: The Conservative Government and the End of Empire,1957-1964，第1冊，第5號文件。
[98]M.A.Havinden and D.Meredith,Colonialism and Development,1850-1960:Britain and Its Tropi cal Colonies,London: Routledge,1993,p.275.
[99]英國內(nèi)閣檔案：CAB134/228,EPC5（51）3,“在殖民帝國的原材料生產(chǎn)”：內(nèi)閣經(jīng)濟(jì)政策委員會備忘錄，1951年3月9日，in Ronald Hyam,ed.,British Documents on the End of Empire: The Labour Government and the End of Empire,1945-1951,London: HMSO,1992，第2冊，第187號文件。
[100]D.J.Morgan,The Official History of Colonial Development,Vol.Ⅲ,London:Macmillan Press,1980,pp.5-6.
[101]Miles Kahler,Decolonization in Britain and France: The Domestic Consequences of International Relations,N.J.Princeton: Princeton University Press,1984,p.143.
[102]J.Darwin,“The Central African Emergency,1959”,Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History,Vol.21,No.3,1993,pp.217–234.
[103]A.N.Porter and A.J.Stockwell,eds.,British Imperial Policy and Decolonization,1938-1964,Vol.2,Basingstoke:Macmillan Press,1989,p.513.
[104]Macmillan Diary,14 Dec.1960,in A.Horne,Macmillan,1957-1986,Basingstoke:Macmillan,1989,p.209.
[105]英國首相辦公廳檔案：PREM11/3080，溫德姆（Wyndham）作記錄，1960年11月13日。
[106]Macmillan Diary,19 Feb.1962,in A.Horne,Macmillan,1957-1986,Basingstoke:Macmillan Press,1989,p.408.
[107]英國內(nèi)閣檔案：CAB21/4772,f62,M182/63,1963年5月7日。
[108]陳其人：《殖民地的經(jīng)濟(jì)分析史和當(dāng)代殖民主義》，上海社會科學(xué)院出版社1994年版，第103—104頁。
[109]L.G.Butler,Britain and Empire,Adjusting to a Post-Imperial World,London: I.B.Taurus,1999,p.63.
[110]R.F.Holland,“The Imperial Factor in British Strategies from Attlee toMacmillan,1945-1963”,Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History,Vol.12,No.2,1984,p.169.
[111]J.Gallagher,The Decline,Revival and Fall of the British Empire,p.146.
[112]Ronald Hyam,Britain's Declining Empire: The Road to Decolonization,1918-1968,p.96.
[113]英國殖民部檔案：CO537/2057,no.48,1947年4月30日，“殖民政策的國際方面”,Ronald Hyam ed.,British Documents on the End of Empire: The Labour Government and the End of Empire,1945-1951，第2冊，第174號文件。
[114]Frank Heilein,British Government Policy and Decolonisation,1945-1963,p.12.
[115]Johan Darwin,Britain and Decolonisation: The Retreat from Empire in the Post-war World，New York: St.Martin's Press,1988,p.72.
[116]David Goldsworthy,“Keeping Change within Bounds: Aspects of Colonial Policy During the Churchill and Eden Governments,1951-1957”,pp.81-108.
[117]J.Dickie,Special No More: Anglo-American Relations: Rhetoric and Reality,London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson,p.105.
[118]L.J.Butler,“Winds of Change: Britain,Europe and Commonwealth,1959-1961”,in B.Brivati and H.Jones,eds,From Reconstruction to Integration: Britain and Europe since1945,p.160.
[119]Simon Ball,The Guardsmen: HaroldMacmillan,Three Friends,and the World TheyMade，London: Harper Perennial,2004,p.336.
[120]David Goldsworthy,Colonial Issues in British Politics,1945-1961:From“Colonial Development”to“Wind of Change”,Oxford: Oxford University Press,1971,p.1.
[121]英國內(nèi)閣檔案：CAB128/35/1,CC35（61）4,1961年6月22日“關(guān)于大臣訪問英聯(lián)邦國家咨詢英國和歐共體未來關(guān)系指導(dǎo)草案”，內(nèi)閣結(jié)論，in Ronald Hyam and Wm Roger Louis,eds.,British Documents on the End of Empire: The Conservative Government and the End of Empire，1957-1964，第2冊，第366號文件。
[122]英國內(nèi)閣檔案：CAB134/2402，備忘錄，“小殖民地問題”[PFP（62）19]，殖民部遞交內(nèi)閣委員會有關(guān)太平洋地區(qū)未來政策的呈文，1962年11月30日。
[123]David Cannadine,Ornamentalism: How the British Saw Their Empire,London: Penguin Books Ltd.,2001.
[124]Mark Donnelly,Sixties Britain: Culture,Society,and Politics,New York: Pearson Longman,2005,p.25.
[125]Sue Harper and Vincent Porter,British Cinema of the1950s: the Decline of Deference,Oxford:Oxford University Press,2007,pp.243-265.
[126]《英國主要政黨競選政綱》原文參見http://www.politicsresources.net/area/uk.htm，登錄時(shí)間：2019年1月24日。
[127]對工黨殖民思想和執(zhí)政時(shí)期政策（1945—1951）帝國主義本質(zhì)的分析，參見倪學(xué)德《戰(zhàn)后初期英國工黨政府的非殖民化政策》,《歷史教學(xué)》2005年第8期。
[128]Philip Murphy,Party Politics and Decolonization,p.22.
[129]David Goldsworthy,Colonial Issues in British Politics,1945-1961:From“Colonial Development”to“Wind of Change”,p.1.
[130]Ronald Hyam,Britain's Declining Empire: The Road to Decolonization1918-1968,p.96.
[131]Stephen Howe,Anticolonialism in British Politics: The Left and the End of Empire,1918-1964.
[132]Simon Ball,The Guardsmen: HaroldMacmillan,Three Friends,and the World TheyMade，p.336.
[133]Simon Ball,The Guardsmen: HaroldMacmillan,Three Friends,and the World TheyMade，p.339.
[134]Simon Ball,The Guardsmen: HaroldMacmillan,Three Friends,and the World TheyMade，p.344.
[135]A.Sampson,Macmillan: A Study in Ambiguity,London: Allen Lane The Penguin Press,1967,pp.58-59.
[136]R.Hornby,“Conservative Principles”,The Politi cal Quarterly,July-September 1961,pp.227-269.
[137]Miles Kahler,Decolonization in Britain and France: The Domestic Consequences of International Relations,p.143.
[138]英國內(nèi)閣檔案：CAB124/2602，索爾茲伯里自由演講，1956年1月24日，in Simon Ball,The Guardsmen: HaroldMacmillan,Three Friends,and the World TheyMade,p.334.
[139]Salisbury,Lord,“Decline and Fall”,The Sunday Times,26 January,1964.
[140]Salisbury's Letter to The Sunday Express,26 February,1961,in Dan Horowitz,“Attitudes of British Conservatives towards Decolonization”,African Affairs,Vol.69,No.274,1970,p.22.
[141]Salisbury,Lord,“Decline and Fall”.
[142]Salisbury,Lord,“Decline and Fall”.
[143]英國首相辦公廳檔案：PREM11/3414，索爾茲伯里致麥克米倫，1961年2月4日，in Simon Ball,The Guardsmen: HaroldMacmillan,Three Friends,and the World TheyMade,p.346.
[144]英國首相辦公廳檔案：PREM11/3414，索爾茲伯里致麥克米倫，1961年2月4日，in Simon Ball,The Guardsmen: HaroldMacmillan,Three Friends,and the World TheyMade,p.346.
[145]Philip E.Hemming,“Macmillan and the End of the British Empire in Africa”,in Richard Aldous and Sabine Lee,eds.,HaroldMacmillan and Britain's World Role,pp.99-100.
[146]英國首相辦公廳文件：PREM11/2587,1959年7月3日。
[147]英格蘭北約克郡的一座海濱小鎮(zhèn)。
[148]Dan Horowitz,“Attitudes of British Conservatives towards Decolonization in Africa”,African Affairs,Vol.69,No.274,January,1970,p.19.
[149]David Goldsworthy,Colonial Issues in British Politics,1945-1961,p.285.