一、資源生成與經濟增長
I. Resource Generation and Economic Growth

為什么斯密當年沒能提出資源生成法則呢？筆者分析有以下幾個原因。第一，斯密1776年發表《國富論》，當時英國工業革命才剛剛開始；第二，1776年前后英國的城市基礎設施還相當落后，仍僅僅停留在簡單的道路、橋梁、運河和港口等設施上；第三，資源生成包括原生性資源、次生性資源和逆生性資源三大類，在當時的歷史階段缺乏生成條件。

(一)區域經濟資源分為三類

一個區域，從經濟學的角度來看，存在三類資源：第一類，與產業發展相對應的資源——在市場經濟中稱為可經營性資源(或純私人產品)；第二類，與社會民生相對應的資源——在市場經濟中稱為非經營性資源(或公共物品)；第三類，與城市建設(包括整個資源生成)相對應的資源——在市場經濟中稱為準經營性資源(或準公共物品)，即它可由非經營性資源(或公共物品)轉化為可經營性資源(或純私人產品)來使用。

1．可經營性資源(或純私人產品)

式中，xj為第j種可經營性資源(或純私人產品)的總量，n為經濟中的企業數(或總人數);為第i個企業(或個人)對這種可經營性資源(或純私人產品)的擁有量。它表明：第一，可經營性資源(或純私人產品)的總量等于每一個企業(或個人)對這種可經營性資源(或純私人產品)的擁有數量之和；第二，可經營性資源(或純私人產品)在企業(或個人)之間是可分的。可經營性資源(或純私人產品)具有競爭性和排他性。

2．非經營性資源(或公共物品)

式中，Xm為非經營性資源(或公共物品)的總量，為第i個消費者(個人或企業)對這種非經營性資源(或公共物品)的占有量，k為啞變量，表明總共有m種資源可以用(即從第1種加到第m種，從X 1、X2加到Xm )。它表明：第一，任何一個消費者(個人或企業)都可以支配非經營性資源(或公共物品)；第二，非經營性資源(或公共物品)在消費者(個人或企業)之間是不可分的。非經營性資源(或公共物品)具有非競爭性和非排他性。

3．準經營性資源(或準公共物品)

筆者認為，準經營性資源(或準公共物品)在公共部門當中的配置比例(λ)受到市場經濟發展程度(Y)、財政收支狀況——包括財政預算(B)和財政支出(FE)、居民或社會認知程度( γ )的共同影響，即存在一個如下函數：

為了進一步探討式1-3的可能函數形式，我們先來討論上述變量對 λ 的邊際影響。

首先，市場經濟發展程度(Y )是一個介乎0到1之間的變量，代表著經濟發展水平在高度不發達和高度發達之間的狀態。市場經濟發展程度會影響可支配收入水平，而可支配收入水平又會影響流入準經營性資源(或準公共物品)領域的資金量。如果經濟發展程度較高，則居民可支配收入較高，此時私人部門將有能力和意愿投資準經營性資源(或準公共物品)，即 λ 變小，準經營性資源(或準公共物品)轉換為可經營性資源(或純私人產品)的比例變高。如果原有的 λ 水平值較高，則意味著準經營性資源(或準公共物品)市場上原本的私人資金供給較少，在總需求不變的情況下，市場會給予新入資金更高的收益率，從而加速私人部門資金流入。因此，參考傳統經濟學理論，λ 的增長率與Y負相關，a為正的常數，即

其次，政府對于準經營性資源(或準公共物品)的投入會受到政府財政收支狀況的影響。如果財政預算(B)低于財政支出(FE)，則政府此時資金不足，將推動準經營性資源(或準公共物品)向可經營性資源轉換(或純私人產品)，以減少政府開支；且政府由于財政資金供給不足，愿意使私人部門獲得更高的收益率。在這種情況下，準經營性資源(或準公共物品)轉向私人部門的比例升高， λ 變小。因此，λ 與財政收支狀況，即財政支出與財政預算的比值(FE/B)負相關。此外，政府財政支出會受原有 λ 值的影響，如果原有的 λ 值較高，即準經營性資源(或準公共物品)由公共部門出資的比例較高，則意味著政府具有更高的財政支出。因此，λ 與財政收支狀況的關系可用式1-5表示，b為正的常數。

最后，私人部門對準經營性資源(或準公共物品)的投入，不僅受到資金供求的影響，還受到居民或社會認知程度的影響。值得注意的是，居民或社會認知程度對于其投入資金意愿的影響在不同經濟階段是不同的：如果經濟發展處于落后階段，即Y<Y*(Y*為經濟成熟的臨界值，根據各國標準而定)，則居民或社會認知程度越高，越能意識到基礎設施投資對于經濟發展的帶動價值，從而越愿意投資準經營性資源(或準公共物品)，這時 λ 與γ負相關；如果經濟發展處于成熟階段，即Y>Y*，則居民或社會認知程度越高，越能意識到過度的基礎設施投資對于環境可持續發展具有負面影響，從而在同樣的收益率水平下，更愿意投資其他資源而非準經營性資源(或準公共物品)，這時 λ 與γ正相關。因此，我們加入ln作為上述討論的校正系數。另外需要考慮的是，原有的 λ 水平對居民或社會認知程度有較大影響。如果市場發展落后，則 λ 越高，越會增強居民投資公共資源的偏好；反之，如果市場發展成熟，則 λ 越高，越會加強居民控制基建規模的愿望，而不愿投資于公共資源。

因此，λ 與居民或社會認知程度的關系可用式1-6表示，c為正的常數。

基于上述分析，我們可以建立一個簡單的公式來表達準經營性資源在公共部門當中的配置比例( λ )與市場經濟發展程度(Y )、財政收支狀況——包括財政預算(B)和財政支出(FE)、居民或社會認知程度(γ)的關系。

式1-7表達了準經營性資源(或準公共物品)向可經營性資源(或純私人產品)和非經營性資源(或公共物品)轉換時對于不同變量的依賴性。值得注意的是，極端情況下，即 λ 為0，也就是準經營性資源(或準公共物品)完全轉換為可經營性資源(或純私人產品)時，該資源的運作將與財政收支狀況、居民或社會認知程度等變量完全無關，即我們不可能借助財政收支狀況等變量影響可經營性資源的性質。

式1-7是關于 λ 的微分方程，求解可得到一個顯式解，如式1-8所示，可以方便我們更加直觀地理解它們的相互作用。

式1-8給出了準經營性資源(或準公共物品)在公共部門當中的配置比例的表達式，它會根據不同時期的經濟狀況變化。

它表明，第一，準經營性資源(或準公共物品)的轉換是一個從非競爭性到競爭性、從非排他性到排他性的過程；第二，準經營性資源(或準公共物品)，即生成性資源的轉換過程受三個因素影響：區域市場經濟發展程度、財政收支狀況和居民或社會認知程度。

(二)準經營性資源(或準公共物品)與資源生成三大領域

準經營性資源(或準公共物品)包括以下三個層面，如圖1-1所示。

1．資源生成領域的原生性資源

資源生成領域的原生性資源包括有形要素和無形要素兩個方面。

(1)有形要素包括太空資源、深海資源、極地資源、地球深探資源和其他資源。

以太空資源為例，探索浩瀚宇宙，發展航天經濟，建設航天強國，是世界各國不懈追求的航天夢。中國打造出“經濟適用型”太空“別墅”。世界各國載人航天、月球探測、行星探測、應用衛星等各領域都在全面發展。

(2)無形要素包括技術、數據等要素。

例如數據要素，即將數據資源化、資產化。

數據并非天然就是生產要素。數據本質上是對物品、服務或經濟主體等相關信息的電子或非電子形式的記錄。從資源化到資產化，數據成為生產要素是一個漸進的過程。從長期趨勢看，數據要素終將大規模滲透到產業經濟、城市經濟等領域，全面提升全要素生產率，推動全球經濟新一輪增長。數據要素涉及新一代信息技術演化生成的通信網絡基礎設施建設、算力基礎設施建設和數字技術基礎設施建設等，可以推進數字產業化和產業經濟、城市經濟數字化。

數據要素的生成作用體現或融合在智能城市開發的相關基礎設施工程上，包括①智慧能源工程；②智慧交通工程；③智慧城管工程；④智慧物流工程；⑤智慧醫療工程；⑥智慧教育工程；⑦智慧農業工程；⑧智慧水利工程；⑨智慧環保工程；⑩智慧應急工程；等等。政府在其中的作用，除了規劃與提供基礎設施外，還應該包括①確定數據產權；②監管數據運行；③統一制定數據歸集標準；等等。

數據要素在產業發展、城市建設和社會民生中具有重要作用。

2．資源生成領域的次生性資源

城市基礎設施(硬件與軟件)在原有的經濟理論中被定義為公共產品，由政府無償提供。但在現實的城市發展進程中，世界各國又把它推向市場，由投資者去完成。筆者把城市基礎設施(硬件與軟件)稱為資源生成領域中的次生性資源。作為次生性資源的城市基礎設施(硬件與軟件)，指為社會生產和居民生活提供公共服務的公共工程設施，用于保證國家和地區社會經濟活動和人們日常生活正常進行的準公共產品系統。

城市基礎設施(硬件與軟件)包括三個層次。

第一層次包括城市的硬件公共設施和軟件公共設施。

(1)城市的硬件公共設施，多指六大系統工程性基礎設施，包括①能源供應系統；②供水排水系統；③交通運輸系統；④郵電通信系統；⑤環保環衛系統；⑥防衛防災系統。

(2)城市的軟件公共設施，主要是指行政管理、文化教育、醫療衛生、商業服務、金融保險、社會福利等社會性基礎設施。

第二層次是指隨著城鄉一體化的進程，城市基礎設施還包括鄉村的生產性基礎設施、生活性基礎設施、生態環境基礎設施和社會發展基礎設施。

第三層次是指隨著城鄉管理現代化的進程，城市基礎設施還包括逐步開發和建設的智能城市等系列工程，也就是當今風行的“新基建”及其運用的項目設施。

3．資源生成領域的逆生性資源

以二氧化碳等六種溫室氣體的排放為例，其一旦排入大氣中，就會立刻形成在人類生產和社會生活中并不被歡迎的社會公共產品。因此，筆者把這類資源稱為資源生成領域的逆生性資源。

《聯合國氣候變化框架公約》京都議定書確定的包含的溫室氣體與其換算方法如圖1-2所示。

在應對氣候變化的進程中，《聯合國氣候變化框架公約》京都議定書和《巴黎協定》代表了全球綠色低碳轉型的大方向。

習近平在第七十五屆聯合國大會一般性辯論上發表重要講話，鄭重承諾，中國將提高國家自主貢獻力度，采取更加有力的政策和措施，二氧化碳排放力爭于2030年前達到峰值，努力爭取2060年前實現碳中和。

于是，從碳排放到碳減排、碳排放權憑證發放與交易，再到碳金融、碳市場，就有了一個資源生成領域中對逆生性資源的開發、利用、遏制與處置問題(如圖1-3所示)。

對資源生成領域三類資源的開發、利用、遏制與處置的結果，即準經營性資源向可經營性資源轉換的結果，可以概括為以下幾點。

第一，它為產業經濟發展提供了生產要素(要素供給)；

第二，它為產業經濟發展創造、優化了環境和條件(環境供給)；

第三，它推動了城市經濟、國際經濟的發展，拓展了市場經濟的領域和空間(市場供給)；

第四，對資源生成領域的開拓與發展，成為一國經濟增長的新引擎(推動著一國經濟可持續增長)。

這表明，政府通過開發資源生成領域的三類資源，在供給側提供了三駕馬車(要素供給、環境供給、市場供給)，助推著一個區域或一個國家經濟的可持續增長。

The author believes there are reasons behind Smith′s failure to propose the law of resource generation. First, Smith published The Wealth of Nations in 1776 when the Industrial Revolution in the UK had just begun. Second, around 1776, the urban infrastructure in the UK only included simple roads, bridges, canals, and ports. Third, resource generation includes primary resources, secondary resources, and retrograde resources, and generation conditions of each of them were all absent around 1776.

(I) Regional economic resources are divided into three types

From an economic perspective, there are three types of resources in a region. The first type is resources corresponding for industrial development, which are referred to as the operative resources (or private products) in a market economy. The second type is resources corresponding for social and people′s livelihoods, which are referred to as non-operative resources (or public goods) in a market economy. The third type is resources corresponding for urban construction (including the entire resource generation), which are referred to as quasi-operative resources (or quasi-public goods) in a market economy and can be converted from non-operative resources (or public goods) into operative resources (or private products).

1. Operative resources (or private products)

In the formula, xj represents the total amount of the j-th operative resource (or private product), and n represents the number of enterprises (or total number of people) in the economy; represents the amount of the operative resource (or private product) owned by the i-th enterprise (or individual). The formula suggests that the total amount of operative resources (or private products) is equal to the sum of the quantity of such operative resources (or private products) owned by all enterprises (or individuals), and that operative resources (or private products) can be allocated among enterprises (or individuals). Therefore, operative resources (or private products) are competitory and exclusive.

2. Non-operative resources (or public goods)

In the formula, Xm represents the total amount of non-operative resources (or public goods); epresents the quantity of such non-operative resources (or public goods) owned by the i-th consumer (individual or enterprise); k is a dummy variable, and indicates that there are m types of resources available for use (i.e. from the 1st to the m-th, from X1, X2 to Xm). The formula suggests that any consumer (individual or enterprise) can control non-operative resources (or public goods), and that non-operative resources (or public goods) are non-allocatable among consumers (individuals or enterprises). Hence,non-operative resources (or public goods) are non-competitory and non-exclusive.

3. Quasi-operative resources (or quasi-public goods)

The author believes that the proportion of quasi-operative resources (or quasi-public goods) in the public sector ( λ ) is under the common influence of the development level of market economy (Y ), the fiscal revenue and expenditure including fiscal budget (B) and fiscal expenditure (FE), and the cognitive degree of residents or society ( γ ). There is a function as follows:

To further study the possible functional forms of Equation 1-3, we will first discuss the marginal effect of the foregoing variables on λ.

Firstly, the development level of market economy (Y ) is a variable between 0 and 1, and represents the state of economic development between highly underdeveloped economy and highly developed economy. It affects disposable income, which in turn affects the amount of funds flowing into the field of quasi-operative resources (or quasi-public goods). The higher the level of economic development is, the higher the disposable income of residents will be. In this case, the private sector will have increased capability and intention to invest in quasi-operative resources (or quasi-public goods). This indicates that when λ will go smaller, the proportion of operative resources (or private products) converted into operative resources (or private product) will increase. A higher value of λ indicates a lower supply of private funds in the market for quasi-operative resources (or quasi-public goods). If the aggregate demand remains constant, the market will offer higher returns to new funds, thereby accelerating the flow of funds into the private sector. Therefore, according to traditional economic theories, the growth rate of λ is negatively correlated with Y, and a is a positive constant.

Secondly, the government′s investment in quasi-operative resources (or quasi-public goods) is influenced by its fiscal revenue and expenditure. When the fiscal budget (B) is lower than the fiscal expenditure (FE), the government will be short of funds and will promote the conversion of quasi-operative resources (or quasi-public goods) into operative resources (or private products) to reduce its expenditure. The government will also provide higher returns to the private sector due to the insufficient supply of fiscal capital. In this case, the proportion of quasi-operative resources (or quasi-public goods) flowing into the private sector will increase, and λ will go smaller. Therefore, λ is negatively correlated with the ratio of fiscal expenditure to fiscal budget (FE/B). In addition, the government′s fiscal expenditure is subject to the original value of λ. A higher λ indicates a higher proportion of quasi-operative resources (or quasi-public goods) provided by the public sector, namely a higher fiscal expenditure. Therefore, the correlation between λ and fiscal revenue and expenditure can be expressed by Equation 1-5, with b being a positive constant.

Lastly, the private sector′s investment in quasi-operative resources (or quasi-public goods) is influenced by both the supply and demand of funds and the cognitive degree of residents or society. It should be noted that the cognitive degree of residents or society has different effects on their willingness to invest in different economic stages. In details, when an economy is underdeveloped, namely Y < Y* (Y* represents the critical value for economic maturity, which should be country-specific), the higher the cognitive degree of residents or society is, the more aware they are of the driving role of infrastructure investment in economic development, and thus the more willing they are to invest in quasi-operative resources (or quasi-public goods). In this case, λ is negatively correlated with γ. Differently, when an economy is developed, namely Y > Y*, the higher the cognitive degree of residents or society is, the more aware they are of the negative impact of excessive infrastructure investment on sustainable development, and thus the more willing they are to invest in other resources rather than quasi-operative resources (or quasi-public goods) at the same level of return. In this case, λ is positively correlated with γ. Therefore, ln is added as a correction factor for the above discussion. Another consideration is that the original value of λ has a significant impact on the cognitive degree of residents or society. When a market is underdeveloped, the higher the value of λ is, the stronger residents′ preference for investing in public resources will be. On the contrary, when a market is developed, the higher the value of λ is, the stronger the desire of residents to control the scale of infrastructure will be, rather than investing in public resources.

Therefore, the correlation between λ and the cognitive degree of residents or society can be represented by Equation 1-6, with c being a positive constant.

Based on the above-mentioned analysis, there is a simple formula to express the correlation between the allocation proportion of quasi-operative resources in the public sector ( λ ) and the development level of market economy (Y), the fiscal revenue and expenditure including fiscal budget (B) and fiscal expenditure (FE), as well as the cognitive degree of residents or society (γ).

Equation 1-7 indicates the dependence of quasi-operative resources (or quasi-public goods) on different variables when they are converted into operative resources (or private products) and non-operative resources (or public goods). Noticeably, in an extreme case of λ=0, when quasi-operative resources (or quasi-public goods) are completely converted into operative resources (or private products), the operation of quasi-operative resources (or quasi-public goods) will be completely uncorrelated with the fiscal revenue and expenditure, the cognitive degree of residents or society, and other variables. This indicates that there will be no way to use such variables to affect the nature of operative resources.

Equation 1-7 is a differential equation about λ, which can be solved to obtain an explicit solution as shown in Equation 1-8 to visually understand their correlation.

Equation 1-8 provides an expression for the allocation proportion of quasi-operative resources (or quasi-public goods) in the public sector, which is subject to economic conditions in different periods.

It indicates that the conversion of quasi-operative resources (or quasi-public goods) is going from being non-competitory to being competitory, and from being non-exclusive to being exclusive. The conversion of quasi-operative resources (or quasi-public goods) or generative resources, is influenced by the development level of regional market economy, the fiscal revenue and expenditure, and the cognitive degree of residents or society.

(II) Quasi-operative resources (or quasi-public goods) and three fields of resource generation

Quasi-operative resources (or quasi-public goods) are divided into three layers as shown in Figure 1-1.

1. Primary resources in the field of resource generation

Primary resources of resource generation are divided into tangible factors and intangible factors.

(1) Tangible factors include space resources, deep-sea resources, polar resources, deep-exploration resources, and other resources.

For example, in terms of space resources, exploring the vast universe, developing the aerospace economy, and building an aerospace power represent the unremitting pursuit of countries around the globe. Amongst others, China has created an “affordable” space “villa”. Manned spaceflight, lunar exploration, planetary exploration, and application satellites are all gaining comprehensive development around the world.

(2) Intangible factors include technology, data, etc.

Amongst others, data factor means that we use data as a resource or capital.

Data are not a natural factor of production. They are essentially an electronic or non-electronic record of information related to goods, services, or economic entities. It takes a gradual process for data to become a factor of production. In the long term, data factor will eventually penetrate into industrial economy, urban economy and other fields on a large scale, thereby comprehensively improving total factor productivity and promoting a new round of global economic growth. Data factor plays a role in the construction of communication network infrastructure, computing power infrastructure, and digital technology infrastructure with the new-generation information technology to develop the digital industry and promote the digital development of industrial economy and urban economy.

The generation role of data factor is reflected or integrated in the relevant infrastructure projects of intelligent city, including ①intelligent energy project; ②intelligent transportation project; ③intelligent urban management project; ④intelligent logistics project; ⑤intelligent medical project; ⑥intelligent education project; ⑦intelligent agricultural project; ⑧intelligent water conservancy project; ⑨intelligent environmental protection project; ⑩intelligent emergency project; etc. In these regards, in addition to planning and providing infrastructure, the government should also ①determine data property rights; ②supervise data operation;③develop unified data collection standards; etc.

Therefore, it can be concluded that data play an important role in industrial development, urban construction, and social livelihood.

2. Secondary resources in the field of resource generation

In traditional economic theories, urban infrastructure (hardware and software) is defined as public goods provided by the government for free. However, in the process of urban development, governments around the world contract it to the market and investors. Urban infrastructure (hardware and software) in this book is referred to as secondary resources in the field of resource generation. As a secondary resource, urban infrastructure (hardware and software) refers to public facilities that provide public services for social production and residents′lives, and quasi-public product system used to ensure the normal functioning of national and regional socioeconomic activities and people′s daily lives.

Urban infrastructure (hardware and software) is divided into three layers.

The first layer includes urban hardware infrastructure and urban software infrastructure.

(1) Urban hardware infrastructure mostly refers to six types of system infrastructure, including ①energy supply system; ②water supply and drainage system; ③transportation system; ④post and telecommunication system; ⑤environmental protection and sanitation system; ⑥defense and disaster prevention system.

(2) Urban software infrastructure refers to administration, culture and education, health-care, commercial service, finance and insurance, social welfare, and other social infrastructure.

The second layer indicates the result of the process of urban-rural integration. Productive infrastructure, living infrastructure, environmental infrastructure and social development infrastructure in rural areas are also included in urban infrastructure.

The third layer indicates the result of the process of urban and rural management going modernized. Intelligent city and other series of projects, namely the popular “new infrastructure”and facilities it utilizes, are also included in urban infrastructure.

3. Retrograde resources in the field of resource generation

Carbon dioxide and other five GHGs will immediately form unpopular social public goods in our production and social life once they are discharged into the air. Therefore, these resources are referred to as retrograde resources in the field of resource generation in this book.

The GHGs specified in the CDM Rules of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement and their conversion are shown in Figure 1-2.

In response to climate change, the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement point out the overall direction of global green and low-carbon transformation.

General Secretary Xi Jinping delivered an important speech at the general debate of the 75th United Nations General Assembly, announcing that China will increase its independent national contribution, adopt more vigorous policies and measures, strive to achieve the peak value of carbon dioxide emissions by 2030 and achieve carbon neutrality by 2060.

Therefore, in terms of carbon emissions, carbon reduction, issuance and trading of carbon emission permits, carbon finance, and carbon market, we are exposed to the development, uti-lization, containment, and disposal of retrograde resources in the field of resource generation (as shown in Figure 1-3).

The result of the development, utilization, containment, and disposal of primary resources, secondary resources and retrograde resources in the field of resource generation represents the result of transformation from quasi-operative resources to operative resources, which can be summarized as follows.

First, it provides factors of production (supply of factor) for the development of industrial economy. Second, it creates and optimizes the environment and conditions (supply of environment) for the development of industrial economy.

Third, it promotes the development of urban economy and international economy and expands the field and space of market economy (supply of market).

Fourth, the exploration and development of resource generation has become a new engine for a country′s economic growth (driving its sustainable economic growth).

Therefore, by exploiting primary resources, secondary resources and retrograde resources in the field of resource generation, the government offers a troika (supply of factor, supply of environment and supply of market) on the supply side to boost the sustainable economic growth of a country or a region.