然而,在大部分社會(huì)中,政府組織僅能創(chuàng)建和實(shí)施身份規(guī)則,這些規(guī)則給予經(jīng)濟(jì)中部分個(gè)人和組織以特權(quán),沒(méi)有做到一視同仁。這些規(guī)則用于解決政治問(wèn)題:與強(qiáng)大且危險(xiǎn)的組織創(chuàng)建并維持穩(wěn)定的關(guān)系,甚至限制彼此之間的暴力行為。這正是諾思、沃利斯和溫加斯特(North、Wallis and Weingast,2009)提出的自然國(guó)家(natural state)的邏輯。19世紀(jì)中葉前,政府沒(méi)有能力大范圍創(chuàng)造和實(shí)行非人格化規(guī)則,因此各種組織只有極少數(shù)的外部非人格化默認(rèn)規(guī)則可以用于協(xié)調(diào)其內(nèi)部成員之間以及組織與外部組織之間的關(guān)系。
遺憾的是,雖然每個(gè)社會(huì)的規(guī)則都是通過(guò)集體行動(dòng)共識(shí)創(chuàng)造的,但并不一定會(huì)被遵守。我們傾向于關(guān)注協(xié)定規(guī)則而忽略默認(rèn)規(guī)則,以至于組織社會(huì)學(xué)中的大量實(shí)證證據(jù)發(fā)現(xiàn),組織經(jīng)常動(dòng)用大量資源實(shí)施那些不被遵守的規(guī)則。馬克·格蘭諾維特(Mark Granovetter,1985)的著名研究提出,那些相信組織會(huì)遵守其創(chuàng)造的所有規(guī)則的人“是叢林里的社會(huì)學(xué)嬰兒”。梅耶和羅恩(Meyer and Rowan,1977)、迪馬喬和鮑威爾(DiMaggio and Powell,1983)的研究旨在回答為什么組織創(chuàng)造了那么多不被遵守的規(guī)則。
具體的例子可以幫助我們最直觀地理解默認(rèn)規(guī)則。我年輕時(shí)曾經(jīng)從事過(guò)幾年建筑工作,是輔助工和小工(Laborer and Hod Carriers)工會(huì)(等級(jí)最低的建筑工會(huì))的會(huì)員。同時(shí)我也是木工工會(huì)(Carpenters Union)的會(huì)員。每一對(duì)輔助工和木工都會(huì)就如何一起工作形成獨(dú)有的共識(shí)。每一對(duì)輔助工和木工都是一個(gè)有著協(xié)定規(guī)則的組織。
丹尼爾·齊布拉特(Daniel Ziblatt,2017,第334—362頁(yè))和伯曼(Ber-man,2019)記述了德國(guó)、意大利、西班牙和葡萄牙民主的破裂。齊布拉特的著作《保守政黨與民主的誕生》(Conservative Parties and the Birth of Democracy,2017)令人信服地指出德國(guó)保守政黨未能建立持久的有組織的政黨結(jié)構(gòu),遲滯了民主進(jìn)程,并最終導(dǎo)致20世紀(jì)30年代德國(guó)滑向法西斯主義。齊布拉特揭示了英國(guó)保守黨如何從分裂的派系聯(lián)盟演變成長(zhǎng)期持續(xù)的組織,并改變了英國(guó)的民主。加里·考克斯(Gary Cox,1987)有力地證明了不僅保守派系,英國(guó)的整個(gè)政黨體制都發(fā)生了轉(zhuǎn)變。相反,德國(guó)的保守政黨在魏瑪共和國(guó)時(shí)期仍處于分裂狀態(tài)。齊布拉特基于英國(guó)政黨體制的變化(以保守黨為例)和德國(guó)政黨體制轉(zhuǎn)變的失敗得出的結(jié)論是有說(shuō)服力的。
更細(xì)致研究又得出了什么結(jié)論呢?在實(shí)施非人格化規(guī)則之前,美國(guó)的州立法機(jī)構(gòu)時(shí)常制定私人的、特殊的和地方性的法律,分別適用于特定個(gè)人、組織和地方。這些法律是精心設(shè)計(jì)的身份規(guī)則。在印第安納州1851年引入非人格化規(guī)則之前,其75%甚至更多的立法是私人的、特殊的和地方性的。1851年之前,一般立法在所有法律中的占比不到10%,但在1851年之后,一般立法的占比提升至1/3~2/3,其他的大多數(shù)法律則主要與州政府的財(cái)政和管理相關(guān)(Lamoreaux and Wallis,2021)。印第安納州是一個(gè)典型,而非特例。
非人格化規(guī)則從三個(gè)方面帶來(lái)更顯著和更穩(wěn)定的經(jīng)濟(jì)結(jié)果。非人格化默認(rèn)規(guī)則增加了關(guān)系和組織的異質(zhì)性。更多的異質(zhì)性本身就是斯密式經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)最重要的原動(dòng)力。與建立組織相關(guān)的非人格化規(guī)則實(shí)施后大幅增加了組織的數(shù)量,進(jìn)一步增加了經(jīng)濟(jì)中的異質(zhì)性。當(dāng)英國(guó)和法國(guó)分別在19世紀(jì)40年代和60年代實(shí)施《注冊(cè)法》后,兩國(guó)的公司數(shù)量均在10年內(nèi)增加了10倍(North、Wallis and Weingast,2009)。
非人格化規(guī)則能夠直接提升經(jīng)濟(jì)和政治的穩(wěn)定性。默認(rèn)規(guī)則即使得到了實(shí)施但不一定會(huì)被遵守。當(dāng)情況發(fā)生變化時(shí),行為可以在寬泛的邊界內(nèi)自由變化而不必改變規(guī)則。經(jīng)濟(jì)和政治關(guān)系以及組織變得更加穩(wěn)定和靈活,更加可預(yù)期的外部規(guī)則減少了關(guān)系對(duì)規(guī)則的侵蝕。通過(guò)降低經(jīng)濟(jì)收縮的頻率,穩(wěn)定的經(jīng)濟(jì)和政治進(jìn)一步推動(dòng)了經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)(Broadberry and Wallis,2017)。
身份規(guī)則和非人格化規(guī)則(identity and impersonal rules):身份規(guī)則的形式及其實(shí)施取決于規(guī)則適用的個(gè)人和組織的社會(huì)身份;非人格化規(guī)則對(duì)所有人一視同仁,可以適用于不同類別的人群,例如所有公民、所有個(gè)體、所有男性、所有女性、所有兒童、所有人口超過(guò)10萬(wàn)的城市等。因此,一項(xiàng)規(guī)則可能在形式上是非人格化的,但其應(yīng)用可能是針對(duì)特定對(duì)象的,以至于實(shí)際上它是身份規(guī)則。
內(nèi)部規(guī)則和外部規(guī)則(internal and external rules):內(nèi)部規(guī)則由組織創(chuàng)建,并僅適用于其內(nèi)部;外部規(guī)則由一個(gè)組織創(chuàng)建并實(shí)施,但由其他組織使用;政府是一個(gè)專門創(chuàng)建并實(shí)施外部規(guī)則的組織。
指定規(guī)則和默認(rèn)規(guī)則(prescriptive and default rules):指定規(guī)則的形式定義了被強(qiáng)制或被禁止的行為,并定義了不遵守規(guī)則的后果;組織運(yùn)用資源實(shí)施指定規(guī)則并對(duì)規(guī)則破壞者施加懲罰;默認(rèn)規(guī)則被實(shí)施但不一定被遵守;默認(rèn)規(guī)則在個(gè)人或組織間發(fā)生沖突時(shí)交由第三方實(shí)施,但不要求實(shí)際行為遵守默認(rèn)規(guī)則。
主要規(guī)則和次要規(guī)則(primary and secondary rules):主要規(guī)則適用于組織內(nèi)部的個(gè)人(或下級(jí)單位的)行為和關(guān)系;次要規(guī)則是組織內(nèi)部創(chuàng)建新規(guī)則或修訂既有規(guī)則的規(guī)則。所有組織均有次要規(guī)則。
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